Situation In Papua Part 2

Jayapura, Kompass - political and security situation in Papua to heat up. After the shootings and mass action in the PT Freeport Indonesia and the dissolution of the Papuan People's Congress III, Monday (24/10), city police chief Adjunct Senior Commissioner Noble Dominggus Awes Otto was attacked and shot dead.It happened in the airport area Majesty, Puncak Jaya regency, around 11:30. Dominggus dead with two gunshot wounds. "The shot of the nose and penetrate to the back of the head," said Chief of Police Public Relations Division Inspector General Anton Bachrul Alam on Monday.

According to the Head of Public Relations Wachyono Papua Police Commissioner, was Dominggus it was monitoring the activities at the airport Honor. At that time Dominggus not accompanied by colleagues or subordinates. Dominggus position in front of an aircraft operator's flight pioneers Mission Aviation Fellowship (MAF) is parked across the street from the airport.

Suddenly he was approached by two men who direct mengeroyoknya. Dominggus fell on his back, and then seized his gun offender. A pengeroyok aimed the gun to the head and then fired Dominggus twice. The two actors then fled to the hills on the north side of the runway.Dominggus was rushed to General Hospital Puncak Jaya regency, but his life did not help. Police are still pursuing the perpetrators. The body was flown to Dominggus planned Sentani, Jayapura regency, on Tuesday morning.

The two perpetrators of the shooting, according to Anton Bachrul Alam, allegedly a member of the separatist group. Police officers working with military forces to hunt down the perpetrators of the forest. "Police have asked for military assistance to pursue them," said Anton. Both players are now the target of the operation. Police are also still explore the case by asking witnesses who saw the shooting.

The shooting was recalled a similar case that occurred in the latter half of June. At that time, five unidentified gang Brigadier One M Yazin, members of the Police Oversight Crossing Air Port and Airport Honor. Yazin M's gun taken away. One of the harpy fired it toward the M Yazin. Though mortally wounded, M Yazin can be saved.

Earlier, last May, members of the Special Forces Command, Sergeant Kaman Nurjaman, shot someone when passing in front of the Market District of Ilu, Puncak Jaya. Situation in Papua lately got hotter. Conflict, riots, armed clashes between security forces and armed groups, acts of assault, and a number of shootings are common. In fact, in one recent month, the increasing escalation of violence.

On 10 October clashes between police and workers in the area of ​​PT Freeport Indonesia (PT FI) which killed one person, three cars on fire, and several people were injured. Four days later, 14 October, the shootings occurred at the PT FI at 37-40 Mile (Kilometer 59.2 to 64), which killed three people.On 19 October, around 200 participants Papuan People's Congress III was arrested. Congress which has lasted three days Soccer Field Zacchaeus, Abepura, it also disbanded because it is considered treason.Indication of treason, said Police Chief Adjunct Senior Commissioner Jayapura Imam Setiawan then, the declaration of the State Federation of West Papua and its structure. Two days later, last Friday, three people were shot dead in Timika, Mimika regency, by a group of unknown persons at the location of gold panning.Commission I GoYesterday, residents and employees of PT FI who live in the area of ​​Tembagapura, Kuala Kencana, and Timika, Commission I went. "Now this is very necessary return on security conditions," said Linda Siregar, deputy resident. During the meeting, Linda said conditions Tembagapura and Timika since 2009 that has always haunted by a sense of anxiety because of threats of violence, even murder. Workers of PT FI even required to wear flak jackets and hats.

Residents also demanded disclosure of the homicides that have occurred since 2009. "My husband was killed in inhumane ways, but it's been two years of her killer has not been revealed as well," said Linda.Agus Maufu, representatives of residents, also complain about how slow the security forces in investigating murder cases in Papua.

Therefore, residents asked the House to help restore the security situation in Papua. The reason, residents also want to return to live quiet and free from the threat of assassination.Vice Chairman of Commission I Gumiwang Agus said the Commission I would call the Coordinating Minister for Political, Legal and Security Djoko Suyanto to ask for an explanation.

Member of Commission I of the Democratic Party, Roy Suryo, also urged the police to investigate cases of shootings, including the shooting last Friday, which also killed his uncle Roy Suryo, Aloysius Margana.Should cases of the shooting, said a member of Commission I of the National Awakening Party, Wahid Lily, can be uncovered quickly. Lily guessed, there is something deliberately hidden so that the handling of the shooting was never properly resolved.

Separately, members of the Assessment Team Papuan Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Adriana Elisabeth, said the escalation of violence in recent days generally indicates a cycle of violence in Papua has not been disconnected.Elisabeth who became one of the authors books Papua Road Map says, "There must be a new strategy break the violence. No longer with the approach so far, such as the placement of excessive force. "(JOS / BIL / NTA / FER)

Source: http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2011/10/25/0533160/Situasi.di.Papua.Memanas

My Newborn Baby........

Sunday, November, Sixth 2011, (early morning, 5.15.A.M) Nothing can descriped, my feeling about that night. The night that make me nervous, scared, and also very happy. because that night i know a new lives will be born to the world, a new life to concern, a new notes will be written, and a new hope will be build.

Sunday, November, Sixth 2011, (morning, 10.14.A.M) My first son finnaly born to this world, after a long struggling to birth to this world. after 9 months 10 days my waiting has been end, my happiness will be added to my life, and a new hope will be coming, it's all because of my new son.

To my Son.........i am very proud of you and to my beloving wife thanks for caring and gives me a wonderful Gift, the child who will  bring a new  hope.

Welcome to The World.........................my son................

Latest Situation in Papua

Inequality in Papua 
Wednesday, October 12, 2011 | 12:58

Papua's stained again with blood. This time in Gorong-gorong's Terminal, Timika, Papua. One person was confirmed dead and dozens others were injured in clashes between security forces and protesters which consists of Freeport workers and local communities.

Until now holds the potential fixed Papua konfilk that could explode at any time, as happened in the sewers and all that caused the various imbalances that occur there.

Information from Papua Police said protesters were disappointed because they can not meet directly with leaders of Freeport to convey the aspirations of a sudden burning vehicles owned by mining companies from the United States. Uncontrollable circumstances cause the officer to take action and ultimately a clash. The protesters really want to convey dissatisfaction related welfare received.

We see at least three gaps that occur on earth Paradise. First, the imbalance that occurs within multinational corporations companies, such as in Freeport. It is not possible a similar imbalance also occurs in other international companies operating in Papua. Imbalances in the company and facilities normally associated wages received. Workers foreigners typically receive wages far more than local workers, despite being in the same position. Moreover, companies like Freeport that are foreign owned.

Related to that, we just remind that every worker must be paid at least equal to the provincial minimum wage (UMP). Department of Labor should help resolve the question of local well-being of workers because of cases like this have repeatedly occurred.

When the amount of UMP have been fulfilled, even far above the UMP, but still appear discontent, police officers should cooperate with local traditional leaders and academics to investigate the root of the problem that triggered riots in Terminal Culverts are not only involves workers, but also the surrounding community.

Demonstration of protracted labor will certainly disrupt the company and production targets. This issue must be resolved so that Freeport can still operate as usual and people returned to their daily activities. If not resolved soon, we fear the seeds of separatism in Papua, which until now has not been completely eradicated it grow by leveraging the company's internal conflicts for the sake of the struggle of a handful of people of Papua. They could have been "playing" with discrediting the security forces, the Government of Indonesia, and Freeport, to spark the antipathy of the people of Papua. When that happens, the apparatus need not hesitate to take stern action against anyone who attempt to revive separatism in Papua.

Second, the inequality between the people and local elites. We believe the people who joined the workers rallied during this time yet to enjoy the fruits of a special autonomy was implemented since 2001. Since the special autonomy goes, funding from central government through the general allocation fund (DAU), a special allocation fund (DAK), the special autonomy funds, as well as additional funding of infrastructure, continued to increase. Total special autonomy funds have been disbursed since 2002 to 2011 reached Rp 32 trillion.

Unfortunately, most of the funds actually enjoyed by government officials and local elites. They can live in luxury, on the contrary the people remain miserable. Local government officials are even more often located in Jakarta, rather than serve the people. Not surprisingly, education and health services, and infrastructure development there are still far from satisfactory.

Third, the discrepancy between Papua and other provinces in Indonesia. In terms of natural resources, Papua is certainly much richer than the provinces in Java, but the percentage of poor people of Papua are so much more. In 2009, the poor in Papua reached 37.53 percent and 35.71 percent of West Papua, while the national average of 14.15 percent. In 2010, the poor in Papua reached 36.80 percent and 34.88 percent of West Papua, while the national average of 13.32 percent.

In education, the participation rate of school children aged 7 years to 18 years in Papua, only 65.76 percent, while the national rate reached 79.53 percent. Likewise, the health care field that is still minimal, among others, reflected in infant mortality in Papua, which reached 30.84 percent and 31.76 percent of West Papua, whereas at the national level was recorded 26.89 per cent.

All it proves is still relatively lagging behind compared Papua other provinces in Indonesia. To that end, the central government should give more attention to development in Papua. The policy of special autonomy should be maintained to accelerate development in Papua, but must be accompanied by strict supervision so that the funds disbursed are used for real people, not for the officials and the local political elite.

Source : Suara Pembaruan (October,12 2011)

How To Write a Thesis

Thesis structure

Title Page

Title (including subtitle), author, institution, department, date of delivery, research mentor, mentor's institution

Abstract

• A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is important. It then goes on to give a summary of your major results, preferably couched in numbers with error limits. The final sentences explain the major implications of your work. A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative.
• Length should be ~ 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.
• Absrtracts generally do not have citations.
• Information in title should not be repeated.
• Be explicit.
• Use numbers where appropriate.

Answers to these questions should be found in the abstract:

1. What did you do?
2. Why did you do it? What question were you trying to answer?
3. How did you do it? State methods.
4. What did you learn? State major results.
5. Why does it matter? Point out at least one significant implication.

 Table of Contents

• list all headings and subheadings with page numbers
• indent subheadings
• it will look something like this:

                Page #

List of Figures    xxx

List of Tables     

Introduction 

     subheads ...?               

Methods 

     subheads ...?               

Results 

     subheads ...?               

Discussion 

     subheads ...?               

Conclusion         

Recommendations         

Acknowledgments         

References        

Appendices

               

List of Figures

List page numbers of all figures.

The list should include a short title for each figure but not the whole caption. 

List of Tables

List page numbers of all tables.

The list should include a short title for each table but not the whole caption. 

Introduction

You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of the paper says. Consider writing the introductory section(s) after you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.

Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an important/interesting scientific problem that your paper either solves or addresses. You should draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest of the paper.

The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous research in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant work. You should then go on to explain why more work was necessary (your work, of course.)

 

What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper? 

1. A statement of the goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken, or why the paper was written. Do not repeat the abstract.
2. Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and significance of the question you are trying to address.
3. Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficient references such that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated understanding of the context and significance of the question.
4. The introduction should be focused on the thesis question(s).  All cited work should be directly relevent to the goals of the thesis.  This is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on a subject.
5. Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included.
6. A verbal "road map" or verbal "table of contents" guiding the reader to what lies ahead.
7. Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff") ends and your contribution ("new stuff") begins?

Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and interpretation/analysis by you. Break up the introduction section into logical segments by using subheads.

Methods

What belongs in the "methods" section of a scientific paper?

1. Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your results.
2. Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment.
3. Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
4. Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.
5. Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.
6. Desciption of your analystical methods, including reference to any specialized statistical software. 

The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats: 

1. Could one accurately replicate the study (for example, all of the optional and adjustable parameters on any sensors or instruments that were used to acquire the data)?
2. Could another researcher accurately find and reoccupy the sampling stations or track lines?
3. Is there enough information provided about any instruments used so that a functionally equivalent instrument could be used to repeat the experiment.
4. If the data are in the public domain, could another researcher lay his or her hands on the identical data set?
5. Could one replicate any laboratory analyses that were used?
6. Could one replicate any statistical analyses?
7. Could another researcher approximately replicate the key algorithms of any computer software?

Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of where to find more complete descriptions of procedures.

Do not include descriptions of results.

Results

• The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs.
• Indicate information on range of variation.
• Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results - save that for the discussion.
• Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own inferences and construct their own explanations.
• Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis.
• Break up your results into logical segments by using subheadings
• Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of paragraphs.  It is far better to say "X had significant positive relationship with Y (linear regression p<0.01, r^2=0.79)" then to start with a less informative like "There is a significant relationship between X and Y".  Describe the nature of the findings; do not just tell the reader whether or not they are significant. 

Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections

Quarantine your observations from your interpretations. The writer must make it crystal clear to the reader which statements are observation and which are interpretation. In most circumstances, this is best accomplished by physically separating statements about new observations from statements about the meaning or significance of those observations. Alternatively, this goal can be accomplished by careful use of phrases such as "I infer ..." vast bodies of geological literature became obsolete with the advent of plate tectonics; the papers that survived are those in which observations were presented in stand-alone fashion, unmuddied by whatever ideas the author might have had about the processes that caused the observed phenomena.

 

How do you do this? 

1. Physical separation into different sections or paragraphs.
2. Don't overlay interpretation on top of data in figures.
3. Careful use of phrases such as "We infer that ".
4. Don't worry if "results" seem short.

Why?

1. Easier for your reader to absorb, frequent shifts of mental mode not required.
2. Ensures that your work will endure in spite of shifting paradigms.

 Discussion

Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The discussion section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following questions and caveats: 

1. What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal variations.)
2. What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?
3. What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?
4. What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting predictions?
5. Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
6. Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction - what is the relationship of the present results to the original question?
7. What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in earth sciences, ecology, environmental policy, etc....
8. Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for results. Be careful to consider all of these rather than simply pushing your favorite one. If you can eliminate all but one, that is great, but often that is not possible with the data in hand. In that case you should give even treatment to the remaining possibilities, and try to indicate ways in which future work may lead to their discrimination.
9. Avoid bandwagons: A special case of the above. Avoid jumping a currently fashionable point of view unless your results really do strongly support them.
10. What are the things we now know or understand that we didn't know or understand before the present work?
11. Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation.
12. What is the significance of the present results: why should we care?

This section should be rich in references to similar work and background needed to interpret results. However, interpretation/discussion section(s) are often too long and verbose. Is there material that does not contribute to one of the elements listed above? If so, this may be material that you will want to consider deleting or moving. Break up the section into logical segments by using subheads.

 Conclusions

• What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations?
• If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember about your paper?
• Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this investigation, summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work.
• Include the broader implications of your results.
• Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion.

Indonesia: A ‘Multicultural’ and Dynamic Society?

 An Introduction.

“Cultural diversity”, that is the most prominent feature of the Indonesian nation. “A nation of unity in diversity (Bhinneka Tunggal Ika)”, that is the national slogan established at the time Indonesia proclaimed her independence in 1945. Long before the independence, in 1928, a group of young Indonesians declared the unity of their future nation: “One country, one nation, one language, Indonesia” (Satu nusa, satu bangsa, satu bahasa, Indonesia)”. It is interesting to note here that bahasa Indonesia was cited as the ‘national language’ at the time Indonesia was still colonized by the Dutch. It is more interesting to know that those young Indonesians consciously chose bahasa Indonesia as the lingua franca among the existing hundreds local languages spread over the archipelago. In his article: Notes on Cultural Diversity in Southeast Asia (2004), Fox argues for the use of language as a means of indicating diversity in Southeast Asia instead of the concept of ‘culture’ as used by the earlier anthropologists. I agree that using language as an indicator of diversity is straightforward, though—as also argued by Fox (2004:18)—various dialects can make up one single language as he found among Rotenese in Eastern Indonesia. As Fox (2004:18) says: “Where exactly to divide up the dialects of Rotenese and decide on what constitute separate languages would be both difficult and arbitrary.” It is not at all easy to define the demarcation of each language, and so also is the reality with hundreds of cultures in Indonesia. This is only one issue to deal with such a complexity. Various other aspects of people’s life, for examples religion, kinship, and economic-social-political system also vary from one group to another.

By considering the total number of languages in larger islands and regions only, excluding the small islands, as many as 701 languages are spread throughout Indonesia (see Fox of his quotation on the number of languages in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java and Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and Papua as quoted from Ethnologue: Languages of the World [Grimes 1992 in Fox 2004:15]). If language is used as an indicator of cultural diversity, it means that only from the larger islands and regions, there are seven hundreds cultures in Indonesia. We could thus imagine how enormous the diversity in Indonesia is. In such a situation, if bahasa Indonesia can function as the lingua franca, to what extent could the national identity and sense of belongingness function as the ‘tie’ of more than 200 millions people with their heterogeneous cultural identities and backgrounds? It is not at all a simple and easy thing to realize.

Referring to Furnivall (1948a, 1948b), Suparlan (2000a, 2000b) argues for Furnivall’s hypothesis that Indonesia is, in reality, a ‘plural society’ consisting of a large number of social groups who do not have any intricate relationships one another, nor do they have the same interests as members of a nation. The colonial regime of the Netherlands-Indie forced them to be together under their rule on the basis of economic interests. Economic interests became the means to build up network and relation in and through the market. Again, economic and political interests underlined the rule of the previous old regime of Soeharto where the ‘unity’ of Indonesian nation was forced strongly above its ‘diversity’ for the sake of their interests. In 1984 the Soeharto regime issued censorship on some sensitive areas, i.e. ethnicity, race, religion and inter-group issues, locally known as SARA that stands for Suku (ethnic group), Agama (religion), and Ras (race). As Budianta says (2004:21), “The SARA censorship betrayed the underlying tension beneath the State pluralistic motto of “Bhinneka Tunggal Ika” (Unity in Diversity).” The reality that we live in diversity with all its consequences should not be raised in public domain for the sake of ‘stability’ and ‘security’ issues as one nation. The ‘unity’ dimension was thus being forced to overcome the real ‘diversity’. Moreover, the rights of local communities to live in their own ways and own their properties in peace were neglected for the sake of the central regime’s maximum exploitation of natural resources (see Suparlan 2003). In the wake of Reform (from 1998 onwards), as Budianta (2004:21) argues, the pendulum swang from centralistic unity towards the needs to recognize diversity which further accelerated the resurgence of ‘multiculturalism’ issue. The euphoria was to turn down the centralistic control and heavy emphasis on unity to give rise towards a greater freedom of the regional and local people to control their own rights and resources in its diversity. Despite such euphoria, the question is, are we, Indonesians, really moving from a pluralistic society—in Furnivall’s meaning—towards a ‘multicultural’ society?

Suparlan (2003:31) argues for the meaning of multiculturalism as an ideology that praises cultural differences, or a belief that recognizes and enforces the formation of cultural pluralism as a form of societal life. How to operationally implement such an ideology in everyday life? How to put into action the praise of differences and the belief to enforce cultural pluralism? Fay (1996:241) argues against a too restrictive and too static a slogan of multiculturalism as only ‘recognizing, appreciating, and celebrating difference’. ‘Engaging, questioning, and learning’ are better captures the synergistic character of genuine multicultural interaction, as well as the dynamic character of social science (Fay 1996:241). Looking at the long history of the development of Indonesia as a nation, I argue that it would be a long way for the Indonesian people to form and reach the genuine multicultural interaction among the very heterogeneous people. This is the great challenge for both the people and the academia. Yet, this is the reality the people face in their everyday life. Like a pendulum, the swing is moving back and forth between the ‘forced plural society without any genuine multicultural interaction’ to the great interests to form a multicultural society, yet still in the midst of facing various problems, hardships and challenges to reach the other end of the pendulum: the multicultural Indonesia. Such is also a portray of how dynamic the nation is from the period of pre-independence up to this recent modern time through the struggle of sustaining independence, and the unity of the nation amid the very diverse conditions, people, and interests. On the other hand, the Indonesian nation has to struggle of reaching prosperity in the midst of prolonged poverty, while facing vast changes through modernization and globalization. Indonesia is also an archipelago with diverse degrees of contact between and among the people, within and between neighboring islands and foreign countries. The mobility of people within and inter-islands has also been going on since the colonization period up to recent times. In such a complex society, how do the families sustain their existence? To what extent do the family members exercise their decisions and strategies in transmitting ‘cultures’ which are so diverse, and by doing that, also sustaining and at the same time, changing ‘cultures’? Yet, within one nation having one language as the lingua franca, to what extent do the national language and ‘culture’ play important role in the ways the family transmit the ‘cultures’? In a heterogeneous society like Indonesia, could the genuine multicultural interaction take place where the family members do engage, learn, and question one another and with those belonging to the ‘others’? Referring to the main theme of the conference, is this the kind of ‘education’ the members of a ‘family’ perform and hence would support, or otherwise, jeopardize the efforts to create a multicultural Indonesia? Yet, what kind of ‘cultures’ do they, through what is called as ‘education’, transmit, sustain, and change in the midst of such a complex and dynamic Indonesia? These are not easy questions to answer. I will not be able to provide the answers of all those questions in this brief paper. Yet, a brief examination of the ongoing features of those phenomena will be discussed. Though the family as a social entity becomes the main focus of this conference, I would pursue my perspective in examining the ‘family education’ in Indonesia from theagency perspective and the situational and processual approaches instead of the emphasis on the system with the underlying essentialism point of view (see Bourdieu 1977;Giddens 1979; Ortner 1984; Vayda 1986; Ahearn 2001; also see Moore 1987, 1994;Vayda et al. 1991). Before examining these issues further, it is urgent to have an understanding of what constitutes a ‘family’ in a nation like Indonesia and what are the features of ‘families’ in a heterogeneous Indonesia.

Resources :

Ahearn, L.M.
2001 ‘Language and Agency,’ Annual Review of Anthropology 30:109—37.
Borofsky, R.
1987 Making History: Pukapukan and Anthropological Constructions of Knowledge.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1994 ‘The Cultural in Motion,’ in R. Borofsky (ed.) Asssessing Cultural Anthropology.
New York: McGraw-Hill. Pp.313—19.
Bourdieu, P.
1977 Outline of a Theory of Practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Budianta, M.
2004 ‘Multiculturalism: In Search of a Critical Framework for Assessing Diversity in
Indonesia,’ in K. Sunarto, R. Hiang-Khng Heng, and A.F. Saifuddin (eds)
Multicultural Education in Indonesia and Southeast Asia: Stepping into the
Unfamiliar. Depok: Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia. Pp.21—35.
Coppel, C.A.
2002 Studying Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia. Singapore: Singapore Society of Asian
Studies.
2004 ‘Historical Impediments to the Acceptance of Ethnic Chinese in a Multicultural
Indonesia,’ in L. Suryadinata (ed.) Chinese Indonesians: State Policy, Monoculture
and Multiculture. Singapore: Eastern University Press by Marshall Cavendish.
Pp.17—28.
2005 ‘Introduction: Researching the Margins,’ in T. Lindsey and H. Pausacker (eds)
Chinese Indonesian: Remembering, Distorting, Forgetting. Singapore: Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies and Clayton: Monash of Southeast Asian Studies. Pp.1—9.
Dilts, D. and S. Hate
1996 ‘IPM Farmer Field Schools: Changing Paradigms and Scaling-up’, Agricultural
Research & Extension Network 59b:1-4.
Fay, B.
1996 Contemporary Philosophy of Social Science. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Fox, J.J.
2004 ‘Notes on Cultural Diversity in Southeast Asia,’ in K. Sunarto, R. Hiang-Khng
Heng, and A.F. Saifuddin (eds) Multicultural Education in Indonesia and Southeast
Asia: Stepping into the Unfamiliar. Depok: Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia. Pp.11—
20.
Furnivall,
1948a Colonial Policy and Practice: A Comparative Study of Burma and the Netherlands
India. New York: New York University Press.

10 Ice Breakers for Adult Students

Ice breakers are the best way to help your students get to know each other, to break the ice on the awkward first day of school. If your students are adults, it's even more important to choose an ice breaker that won't backfire on you. Most adults don't want to play silly games. Choose one of the top ten and you'll be a hit on the first day of school. Remember that ice breakers are also a great way to energize your classroom when the doldrums set in, or to introduce a new topic. Be creative!

1. People Bingo

People Bingo is one of the most popular ice breakers because it’s so easy to customize for your particular group and situation, and everyone knows how to play it. Make your own bingo cards, or use one of the fabulous online card makers.

2. Marooned

This icebreaker is a great introduction when people don’t know each other, and it fosters team building in groups that already work together. I have always found people’s answers to be very revealing about who they are as a person. Who would you want with you on a deserted island?

3. Table Topics

I picked up my first box of Table Topics^TM on a whim while shopping in one of those funky little shops you see in the artsy parts of any city. A four-inch clear acrylic cube holds 135 cards, each with a provocative question that is sure to inspire lively conversation.

• Which piece of land would you wish to have preserved forever?
• What’s your favorite quotation?
• What song evokes the strongest memories for you?

4. The Power Of Story

Adults bring to your class or meeting room an abundance of life experience and wisdom. Tapping into their stories can deepen the significance of whatever you've gathered to discuss. Let the power of story enhance your teaching of adults.

5. Expectations

Expectations are powerful, especially when you're teaching adults. Understanding your students' expectations of the course you're teaching is key to your success. Make sure you know what your students expect with this expectations ice breaker.

6. 2- Minutes Mixers

You may have heard of 8-minute dating, where 100 people meet for an evening full of 8-minute dates. They talk to one person for 8 minutes and then move on to the next. Eight minutes is a long time in the classroom, so we'll call this ice breaker a 2-minute mixer. Ready? Go!

7. Photo Scavenger Hunt

A picture is worth a thousand words. Almost everyone has a photo or two in their wallet, especially when you’ve got a room full of adults, or even better, baby boomers with grandchildren. The photo hunt is on!

8. Where In The World

Technology and transportation in the modern world have given us the opportunity to learn so much more, often first hand, about the rest of the world. If you haven’t had the privilege of global traveling, you may have experienced the thrill of conversing with foreigners online or working side-by-side with them in your industry. The world becomes a smaller place the more we get to know each other. 

When you have a gathering of people from various countries, this icebreaker is a breeze, but it’s also fun when participants are all from the same place and know each other well. Everyone is capable of dreams that cross borders.

9. If You Had a Magic Wand

If you had a magic wand, what would you choose to change? Pass a magic wand around your classroom and generate some energy!

10.If You Could Take a Different Path

Almost everyone has wished at some point that they had taken a different path in life. We get started in one direction, and before long, there's no turning back. Sometimes this isn't that big of a deal, but what a tragedy it is when a life so full of promise gets off track and derails. It can seem like there's no way to change direction. Wouldn't it be wonderful if simply stating the desire for a new path could inspire it to action? Can't hurt to try. Find out if your students are in your classroom to find a new direction.

Sources :http://adulted.about.com/od/icebreakers/tp/toptenicebreakers.htm 

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History Of United Stated

The History of the United States traditionally starts with the Declaration of Independence in the year 1776, but its territory was occupied first by the Native Americans since prehistoric times and then also by European colonists who followed the voyages of Christopher Columbus starting in 1492. The largest settlements were by the English on the East Coast, starting in 1607. By the 1770s the Thirteen  Revolution. In 1789 the Constitution United States federal government, with war hero George Washington as the first president. The young nation continued to struggle with the scope of central government and with European influence, creating the first political parties in the 1790s, and fighting a second war for independence in 1812. contained two and half million people, were prosperous, and had developed their own political and legal systems. The British government's threat to American self-government led to war in 1775 and the Declaration of Independence in 1776. With major military and financial support from France, the patriots won the became the basis for the

U.S. territory expanded westward across the continent, brushing aside Native Americans and Mexico, and overcoming modernizers who wanted to deepen the economy rather than expand the geography. Slavery of Africans was abolished in the North, but heavy world demand for cotton let it flourish in the Southern states. The 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln calling for no more expansion of slavery triggered a crisis as eleven slave states seceded to found the Confederate States of America in 1861. The bloody American Civil WarReconstruction era, the U.S. ended slavery, extended rights to African Americans, and readmitted secessionist states with loyal governments. The national government was much stronger, and it now had the explicit duty to protect individuals. Reconstruction was rolled back by the white South, leaving the blacks in a world of Jim Crow political, social and economic inferiority. The entire South remained poor while the North and West grew rapidly. (1861–65) redefined the nation and remains the central iconic event. The South was defeated and, in the

Thanks to an outburst of entrepreneurship in the North and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers from Europe, the U.S. became the leading industrialized power by 1900. Disgust with corruption, waste, and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement, 1890s-1920s, which pushed for reform in industry and politics and put into the Constitution women's suffrage and Prohibition of alcohol (the latter repealed in 1933). Initially neutral in World War I, the U.S. declared war on Germany in 1917, and funded the Allied victory. The nation refused to follow President Woodrow Wilson's leadership and never joined the League of Nations. After a prosperous decade in the 1920s the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long world-wide Great Depression. A political realignment expelled the Republicans from power and installed Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt and his elaborate and expensive New Deal programs for relief, recovery, and reform. Roosevelt's Democratic coalition, comprising ethnics in the north, labor unions, big-city machines, intellectuals, and the white South, dominated national politics into the 1960s. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the U.S. entered World War II alongside the AlliesNazi Germany in Europe and, with the detonation of newly-invented atomic bombs, Japan and helped defeat in Asia and the Pacific.

The Soviet Union and the U.S. emerged as opposing superpowers after the war and began the Cold Wararms race, the Space Race, and intervention in Europe and eastern Asia. Liberalism reflected in the civil rights movement and opposition to war in Vietnam peaked in the 1960s–70s before giving way to conservatism in the early 1980s. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, leaving the U.S. to prosper in the booming Information Age economy that was boosted, at least in part, by information technology. International conflict and economic uncertainty heightened by 2001 with the September 11 attacks and subsequent War on Terror and the late-2000s recession. confronting indirectly in an

Pre-Columbian Era

It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and the present-day United States. The prevailing theory proposes that people migrated from Eurasia across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to present-day Alaska, and then spread southward throughout the Americas. This migration might have begun as early as 30,000 years ago and continued through to about 10,000 years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level caused by the ending of the last glacial period. These early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes.

The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the AmericasEuropean influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus' initial landing. before the appearance of significant 

Colonial Period

After a period of exploration by people from various European countries, Spanish, Dutch, English, French, Swedish, and Portuguese settlements were established. In the 16th century, Europeans brought horses, cattle, and hogs to the Americas and, in turn, took back to Europe maize, potatoes, tobacco, beans, and squash. The disease environment was very unhealthy for explorers and early settlers. The Native Americans became exposed to new diseases such as smallpox and measles and died in very large numbers, usually before large-scale European settlement began.

Spanish, Dutch, and French colonization

Spanish explorers were the first Europeans to arrive in what is now the United States with Christopher Columbus' second expedition, which reached Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493; others reached Florida in 1513. Quickly Spanish expeditions reached the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of Southeast. Also in 1540 Francisco Vázquez de Coronado explored from Arizona to central Kansas. The Spanish sent some settlers, creating the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States at St. Augustine, Florida in 1565, but it attracted few permanent settlers. Much larger and more important Spanish settlements included Santa Fe, Albuquerque, San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco. 

New Netherland was the 17th century Dutch colony centered on New York City and the Hudson River Valley, where they traded furs with the Native Americans to the north and were a barrier to Yankee New England. The Dutch were Calvinists who built the Reformed Church in America, but they were tolerant of other religions and cultures. The colony was taken over by Britain in 1664. It left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life, including a secular broadmindedness and mercantile pragmatism in the city, a rural traditionalism in the countryside typified by the story of Rip Van Winkle, and politicians such as Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt. expansion from New France was the area colonized by France from 1534 to 1763. There were few permanent settlers outside Quebec, but Indian tribes often became military allies in France's wars with Britain. After 1750 the Acadians—French settlers who had been expelled by the British from Acadia (Nova Scotia)—resettled in Louisiana, where they developed a distinctive rural Cajun culture that still exists. They became American citizens in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase. Other French villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers were absorbed when the Americans started arriving after 1770.

British Colonization

The strip of land along the eastern seacoast was settled primarily by English colonists in the 17th century, along with much smaller numbers of Dutch and Swedes. Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that employed forms of unfree labor such as slavery and indentured servitude, and by a British policy of benign neglect (salutary neglect) that permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders. Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants. 

The first successful English colony was established in 1607, on the James River at Jamestown. It languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and established commercial agriculture based on tobacco. Between the late 1610s and the Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 convicts to their American colonies. One example of conflict between Native Americans and English settlers was the 1622 Powhatan uprising in Virginia, in which Native Americans had killed hundreds of English settlers. The largest conflict between Native Americans and English settlers in the 17th century was King Philip's War in New England,^[13] although the Yamasee War may have been bloodier. 

New England was initially settled primarily by Puritans who established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, although there was a small earlier settlement in 1620 by a similar group, the Pilgrims, at Plymouth Colony. The Middle Colonies, consisting of the present-day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, were characterized by a large degree of diversity. The first attempted English settlement south of Virginia was the Province of Carolina, with Georgia Colony the last of the Thirteen Colonies established in 1733. The colonies were characterized by religious diversity, with many Congregationalists in New England, German and Dutch Reformed in the Middle Colonies, Catholics in Maryland, and Scotch Irish Presbyterians on the frontier The First Great Awakening. Many royal officials and merchants were Anglicans. Religion expanded greatly after the First Great Awakening, a religious revival in the 1740s led by preachers such as Jonathan Edwards. American Evangelicals affected by the Awakening added a new emphases on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted within new believers an intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and forwarded the newly created evangelicalism into the early republic, setting the stage for the Second Great Awakening beginning in the late 1790s.

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