Writing Progress for Elementary

Progress, Grade by Grade

It helps to gain perspective on the progress children make in writing by generalizing on how children write at the various grade levels, bearing in mind the wide range of individual differences. Lucy McCormick Calkins, with her wealth of experience in teaching children to write, provides the following descriptions in her book, The Art of Teaching Writing.

“During first and second grade, most children seem to move in these directions:

·    From writing for oneself toward writing also for an internalized audience

·    From writing for the sake of the activity itself (all process) toward writing also to create a final product

·    From less to more fluency

·   From writing episodes that do not begin before or last beyond the actual penning of a text, toward broader writing episodes that encompass looking ahead and looking back, anticipating and critiquing” (pp. 67-68).

Third graders become more deliberate in their writing and use concrete processes.

Calkins describes eight year olds as follows: “They did everything in a concrete, systematic way and wrote out everything in full. The children rarely considered sentences in their mind’s eye. Instead, they wrote out every option. When they deliberated over topic choice, they usually listed their options, and often they even went through the list, starring the three best, then crossing out two, and then circling the chosen topic” (p. 91).

Calkins says new flexibility characterizes fourth, fifth, and sixth graders.

“In the upper elementary grades, the children I know best seem to become a little more capable of thinking through their options. Strategies that are first concrete, physical operations begin to be internalized as abstract mental operations” (p. 94). Whereas third graders tend to see things in absolutes, with only one right way to do things, these older children begin to realize that there are different ways to express themselves.

Establishing Right Conditions

As you prepare to teach your children to write, think of what tools they will need. Nothing fancy, mind you, but the basics: paper of various sizes and shapes, a variety of pens and pencils, markers, correction fluid, scissors, tape, paper clips, staples and perhaps some cardboard or construction paper for a cover.

Space in your house may be limited, but find a corner, inside or out, where children can have relatively quiet and comfortable writing stations. Trying to write a creative piece on the dining room table stacked with dishes, other kids’ books, and Dad’s papers all over the place is difficult even for an adult. The dining room table may be fine if distractions can be limited and conditions controlled, but look for alternatives. I know some children who do their best writing in a tree house.

Setting the Stage

“Students become more interested in writing and the quality of their writing improves when there are significant learning goals for writing assignments and a clear sense of purpose for writing” (What Works: Research about Teaching and Learning, second edition. U.S. Dept. of Education, p. 43). Children are motivated when they realize they are writing for an audience, that they are producing something other people will want to read.

The atmosphere you establish for writing should encourage a desire to share what is written, both during the writing process and when the writing is complete. The letter from Brian at the beginning of this article was written for a particular purpose and to a particular audience, and he even anticipated a response (in this case, a toy tractor or set of Legos).

The stage can be set by talking about a topic, looking at pictures, reading from a book, or taking a walk to observe types of buildings or the beauty of a sunrise. Picture books are good models for writing because they contain all the elements of a story in a small space and help children visualize what they will write.

Tell stories about yourself. Your kids will pick up on some of the themes you establish in this way. Help them talk through a topic, discussing the meaning of words they might want to use and helping them verbalize their thoughts. The Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Imagination language arts series recommended by CHED-FS Curriculum Services has a strong component for teaching writing to elementary school students, and this resource can assist parents in planning and structuring the teaching of writing.

The Process

It is a generally accepted practice to teach writing as a process of brainstorming (rehearsal), followed by composing (drafting), revising, and editing. In “Setting the Stage,” you have already begun the process.

It is important to help your children sort through their ideas before actually beginning to write. Composing or drafting is often hard work and takes time, but it need not be drudgery. Our goal should be to help children gain fulfillment from this process. One of the nice things about teaching your own children in the home is that you can give immediate feedback and encouragement.

Revision

Revision is a time for the writer to get feedback from you, and if at all possible, from other children as well. Have your children read aloud what they have written to various family members or to friends and neighbors. Ask for clarification, using your comments to encourage creative expression and to work toward more mature forms of written expression, but always accepting genuine efforts on the part of the author. Discuss alternatives when improvements are needed.

Editing

Editing is the time to check the final version for correct spelling, punctuation, grammar, legibility, excess words, and other conventions. As you work with your children on this phase of the process, be sensitive to their level of maturity and ability. How a parent teacher approaches editing can be either a positive growth experience, or can stifle future attempts at writing. Your goal should be for the individual to become his own best editor and not have to rely on you to make corrections.

By the end of the sixth grade, most children are capable of writing with increased sophistication, aware of the steps involved from rehearsal to editing. They are able to control a sequence of events, use dialogue, and construct good endings. By this time they should have discovered how to integrate writing as a meaningful aspect of their lives. Writing should not be just something that is accomplished as a school assignment. Rather, it should be an essential and fulfilling daily experience

How To Do Classroom Action Research

Classroom Action Research is a method of finding out what works best in your own classroom so that you can improve student learning. There are many ways to improve knowledge about teaching. Many teachers practice personal reflection on teaching, others conduct formal empirical studies on teaching and learning. Classroom Action Research is more systematic than personal reflection but it is more informal and personal than formal educational research.

The goal of Classroom Action Research is to improve your own teaching in your own classroom, department, or school. While there is no requirement that the findings be generalized to other situations the results can add to knowledge base. Classroom Action Research goes beyond personal reflection to use informal research practices such as a brief literature review, group comparisons, and data collection and analysis. Validity is achieved through the triangulation of data. The focus is on the practical significance of findings, rather than statistical or theoretical significance.

Findings are usually disseminated through brief reports or presentations to local colleagues or administrators.

 Steps to conduct Classroom Action Research

  ·      Identify a question or problem:

o  What is the effect of X on student learning?

o  The question or problem should look at something under the teaching control.

o  The problem should also be an area which you are willing to change.

o  It should also be feasible.

·      Review Literature

o  You need to gather two types of information: background and data.

o  It may be much less extensive than traditional research.

o  The use of secondary sources is usually sufficient.

·      Plan a research strategy

o  It may take many forms: pretest, posttest, a comparison of similar classes to a descriptive case study of a single class or student.

o  Both qualitative and quantitative methods are appropriate.

o  It relies on triangulation of data to provide validity.

o  To triangulate collect at least three types of data, e.g., student test scores, teacher evaluations, and observation of student behavior). If all data point to the same direction, you have some assurance of validity.

·      Gather data

·      Make sense of the data

o  Analyze your data, looking for findings with practical significance.

·      Take action

o  Use your findings to make decisions about your teaching strategies.

·      Share your findings

o  There are many ways to share findings with your peers: journals, conferences, workshops, teaching tips, websites, newsletters, etc.

Adapted by Julian Hermida from Gwyn Mettetal, “The What, Why and How of Classroom Action Research”, JoSoTL Vol. 2, Number 1 (2001).

Reality and ideals of National Education in Indonesia

Multidimensional crisis that hit Indonesia since 1997 have an impact on the quality of human resources (HR) Indonesia and also on the quality of education in Indonesia. It is seen from the macro indicators, namely the achievement of Human Development Index (HDI) and micro indicators, such as the capability in reading and writing.

In 2005, Indonesia's HDI ranks 110 out of 177 countries in the world. In fact, the ratings are declining from previous years. Indonesia's HDI in 1997 was 99, then in 2002 to 102, then in 2004 dropped back to 111 (Human Development Report 2005, UNDP). According to World Bank Report (Greaney, 1992) and studies of the IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement), in East Asia shows that the reading skills of fourth grade students in Indonesia is ranked lowest. The average score reading tests for elementary students: 75.5 (Hong Kong), 74.0 (Singapore), 65.1 (Thailand), 52.6 (Philippines), and 51.7 (Indonesia). Condition of Indonesia's children can only control 30 percent of the material and they are very difficult to answer the questions shape description that requires reasoning. This is because they are so used in memorizing and working on multiple choice questions.

Meanwhile, the quality of education in Indonesia was ranked 12th of 12 countries in Asia (based survey Political and Economic Risk Consultant). In terms of competitiveness, Indonesia has a low competitiveness, which is only ranked 37th of 57 countries in the world (The World Economic Forum in Sweden, 2000). This means: Indonesia predicated only as a follower, not as a leader.

Privatization of education 
Government plans to privatize education is reflected in the National Education System Law, Legal Education Bill, Draft Government Regulation (RPP) of the Elementary and Secondary Education, and RPP on Compulsory Education. Article 53 (1) Law no. 20/2003 on National Education System (System) explains that the organizers of formal education unit established by governments or public legal entity of education.

Privatization of education in Indonesia indicate the weakening of the state's role in implementing the public service sector. Privatization of education in Indonesia is not free from the pressures of debt and debt repayment policies. Indonesia's foreign debt reaches 35-40 percent of the state budget every year. In the end, make education funding cut to a mere 8 percent (Kompas, 10/5/2005). For comparison, the Government of India bears 89 percent of education funding in 1992, while Indonesia only provides 62.8 percent. Even lower when compared with the more backward countries like Sri Lanka (UNESCO and World Bank in "The World Bank," 2004).

At the time of the reform era of cycling, the allocation of the national education budget to 20 percent of the total state budget, and this set the 1945 amendments. But in the draft 2006 State Budget which was passed into law the 2006 State Budget in late October 2005, the national education budget allocated only 10 percent or Rp 40.1 trillion, of which Rp 34.5 trillion for the Education Ministry and the remaining Rp 5.6 trillion for education in Ministry of Religious Affairs.

Build education in Indonesia 
Everyday reality is often heard about quality education is always synonymous with expensive or not cost free. For example, the cost of a child to enter kindergarten and elementary school today will cost $ 500 thousand to Rp 1 million. Some even picked the above Rp 1 million. As for incoming junior or senior high school could reach USD 1 million to Rp 5 million. Then the question: who should pay for public education? The answer is the duty of government to guarantee every citizen to obtain a quality education and access. But in fact, the government argued precisely from its responsibilities. In fact, the reason for lack of funding can not be used as an excuse for the government to "wash their hands."

Government efforts to improve the condition of education in Indonesia has actually done with the birth of Law no. 22 Year 1999 on Regional Autonomy. The law stated that the greatest authority in the field of education in the hands of local governments, both concerning the budget and strategic policy in the areas of curriculum. But the reality of implementation is another, apparently in some areas have constraints due to lack of availability of the education budget. Meanwhile, based on article 31 paragraph 4 of the 1945 Constitution and Article 49 National Education Law, the education budget at least 20 percent of the budget.

There are several things to be done to improve the quality of national education. First, improvement of education management system. National education system, which has been refined and ratified in 2003, its implementation should be done with a management system or proportional and professional management, at both the macro and the micro level. Education budget must also be adequate. Furthermore, it should be pursued in earnest so that the cost of education to at least reach 20 percent of the APBN / APBD, as outlined in the 1945 Constitution.

Secondly, there is need for the integration process into the education system in every aspect of human life, openess and flexibility in learning, learning strategies, teacher-student roles in learning, ICT (information and communication technology) in learning process, as well as learning content and learning by doing. Moreover, in the process of education itself there is a process (to educate and be educated), the formation of a more human man or pemanusiaan process. This means that education has a fundamental nature of the so-called intellectual humanism. The process of educating and the educated can not be denied a fundamental act. The question is: What kind of a fundamental nature? Fundamental nature is an act that changed human life and determines both the educators and students. An educator means the person who determines an attitude. While students are the person who receives education to further grow into a human. In addition, education also occurred due process of scientific communication (scientific community) that form a pattern of critical and creative thinking.

The development of education in Indonesia also can not be separated from the influence of global developments, in which science and technology is developing very rapidly. The era of free markets is a challenge for the education in Indonesia because it does not rule out the existence of opportunities to make educational institutions and educators from overseas into Indonesia. To deal with the global market, at least the national education policy should be put forward in improving the quality of education, both academically and nonakademik.

Wika Yunita Ilham, Faculty of Biology

Resources based on. Wika Yunita articles at

http://scientiarum.uksw.edu/2007/12/10/potret-pendidikan-nasional-realita-dan-idealisme/  

Portrait of Education in Indonesia

Once the contents of the latest status of Education University of Indonesia on facebook today. Enough to make a moment it occurred, what it has done for education today.

Just yesterday published on in the media, the expression of students of Indonesia to face the National Final Examination. Dominant in the highlight, of course those who still can not get a diploma. Crying, screaming, angry. Is this the reason why UAN should be abolished? So that no one should be depressed to face failure? Why should replace the assessment system? What about the teaching system?

In terms of quality of education, the UNESCO data (2000), Indonesia ranks 102 (1996), 99th (1997), 105th (1998), and all 109 (1999) from 174 countries. Ironically, on campus, I often hear students' achievement Indonesia at the International Science Olympics are regularly held every year. The results are quite encouraging and soothing in the midst of the nation's slump. Evidently there is still hope of our education to rise.

Unfortunately, such governments are less sensitive to the glorious achievements of this nation shoots. Works by country boy underestimated, resulting in a convoluted bureaucracy in the application for permission to get a patent. No wonder many child domestic work is found in the land. Well if only his work, unfortunately the person was found there. Developing the skills of their thoughts on the country side. The reason? Do not ask again, assurances from the country they live in certainly more enticing and makes the heart peace so they can focus more on his researches.

The problem of education is not a problem that can be solved one day, by changing the policy only, atupun just change the terms and acronyms only. Obviously it takes a short time not to proceed to fix it. But is not no change when not started from a step?

resources base on.

http://edukasi.kompasiana.com/2010/05/02/potret-pendidikan-indonesia/

Free Schooling In Indonesia

There is always a way for each of a strong will. In the context of education quality in Indonesia, a glimmer of hope that emerged from the implementation of the regional economy (regional autonomy), the role of community institutions are also concerned with improving the quality of education in Indonesia for the whole Indonesia children.
Along with the implementation of Law No.22 of 1999 on regional autonomy, counties and municipalities as the subject has greater authority in managing their own households. With such authority, the area could have a broad space to be creative in print formidable human resources, tailored to regional interests. Regions also know best the needs of human resources in the region. With regional autonomy, local government district or municipality can directly translate into the need for human resources policy area. Among others through free education programs and incentives for teachers. 

 
Government Gowa regency, South Sulawesi Province is one of the pioneers in the implementation of free education in Indonesia. Gowa bold initiative, to innovate in developing the potential of daeranya according to eliminate the cost of education up to high school level since 2007, long before the government's campaign for free education. Local government with authority to give adequate support. Starting from the rule of law on the budget allocations for education sector to the rules prohibiting types of charges related to school operations [i]. A number of other instruments were also issued to accompany the policy is that with the establishment of the compulsory education law No.10/2009. In it is set on the obligation for school-age children, to attend school. Otherwise, as in Japan, concerned parents should bear the risk six months in jail or a fine of 50 million. Various program innovations in pendidikanpun prepared as the development of audio visual media, or the learning of mathematics through the medium of gaming, and so on. To provide education free up to the high school level, the government Gowa allocate budget to $ 11 billion or about 21.26 percent of the total budget (Kompas, 21/1/2009). This means that autonomously allocate Gowa daring exceeds the central government budget. Gowa Education Department also issued a policy to allow poor students to school without uniforms. So in Gowa no longer project the procurement of materials that in fact be an excellent clothing for profit.

Jembrana District, Bali Province is also not left behind. In order to improve the quality of education, Jembrana regional governments eliminate school fees from primary school through high school for public schools and provide support in the form of scholarships for students who can not afford the private schools. Jembrana regional governments also provide incentives for teachers in the amount of Rp 5000/hour. Almost the same as in Jembrana District, Local Government and Kutai Kertanagara Halmahera also eliminate the cost of education. If in Halmahera exemption costs through high school, in the Kutai Kartanagara been to college. Pemda Kutai also give incentives to teachers, which cost Rp 1.5 million. A number of other areas also started doing the same policies.

Another glimmer of hope to the realization of free quality education and also supported by the community. Among the amil zakat institution that is growing very rapidly in Indonesia in recent years. For example, Rumah Zakat Indonesia (RZI), Purse Dhuafa Republika (DDR), Al-Falah Foundation for Social Fund (YDSF). Amil zakat institutions are getting the trust of the community to manage zakat, infak and a nominal sodaqoh considerable and increasing from year to year. Distributed, one of which is for education. A number of institutions / companies / foundations also had its share and more and more popping up in order to advance the quality of education in Indonesia.

Indonesia Education System

Vigorous efforts have been made to advance education and reduce illiteracy. In 1971, overall literacy was estimated to be about 58%, ranging from 77% in the cities to only 52% in rural areas. By the year 2000, adult illiteracy rates were estimated at 13.0% (males, 8.1%; females, 17.9%). Under the constitution, education must be nondiscriminatory, and six years of primary education are free and compulsory. In practice, however, the supply of schools and teachers is inadequate to meet the needs of the fast-growing under-15 age group. In the mid-1990s, an estimated 97% of primary-school-age children were enrolled in primary schools. In 1997, 29,236,283 students were enrolled in Indonesia's 173,893 primary schools, with 1,327,178 teachers. The student-to-teacher ratio stood at 22 to 1. Secondary schools employed 986,896 teachers and enrolled 14,209,974 students in that same year. As of 1999, 91% of primary-school-age children were enrolled in school, while 48% of those eligible attended secondary school. Schools are coeducational, except for certain vocational and religious schools. Private (mostly Islamic religious) schools receive government subsidies if they maintain government standards. Bahasa Indonesia is the language of instruction, but local dialects may be used until the third level. 

The school system includes a six-year primary school, a three-year junior secondary school, a three-year senior secondary school, and higher education in universities, faculties, teachertraining colleges, and academies. Junior and senior technical schools have been brought into line with junior and senior secondary schools. Patterned after Dutch practices, Indonesia's educational system divides secondary-school students into groups according to curriculum. In the third year of the junior secondary school, the students are separated into an A-curriculum (languages) and a B-curriculum (mathematics). In senior secondary school, the students normally continue in their previous curriculum, but B-curriculum students may shift to an economics curriculum (C). Teacher-training schools range from the basic teacher-training program of four years (post-primary education) up through teachers' colleges, academies, faculties, and universities. Upon entering institutions of higher learning, students must enter the division for which their curriculum has prepared them; thus, A-curriculum students enter the language and philosophical faculties. 

There are 51 universities, the largest of which are the University of Indonesia (in Jakarta) and the University of Gajah Mada (in Yogyakarta). Most of the universities are new, having been established since the mid-1950s. In all universities and third-level institutions, there were a total of 157,695 teachers and 2,303,469 students in 1996. 

The Indonesia National Education System is generally aimed at elevating the intellectual life of the nation and developing the entire Indonesian people. The education is expectedly to build the people who are devoted to God, have knowledge and skills, are independent, fair, and healthy physically and spiritually, as well as responsible for their country and the nation.

Guided by the mission of education, the Government enacted a new Law on National Education System in July 2003 resulting from national wide consultation. An outstanding feature of the Law is the implementation of compulsory basic education for all Indonesian citizens. The Law states that every seven to fifteen years old citizen shall have the right to receive basic education. This is a major step towards creating a critical mass in the area of education for national development as recognized in the National Plan of Action, Indonesia’s Education for All (2002) whose realization has become a primary responsibility for all education providers.

One of the purposes of the Law is to inculcate in young minds the respect for human rights, for cultural pluralism and learning to live together, promote morals and character building as well as unity in diversity in the spirit of brotherhood and solidarity.

The education system is organized in two different paths, i.e. school and out-of-school education. School education is organized in schools through teaching and learning activities that are gradual, hierarchical, and continuous. Out-of-school education is organized outside the formal schooling through teaching and learning activities that may or may not be hierarchical and continuous. Education within the family constitutes an important part of the out-of-school education and provides religious, cultural and moral values and the family’s skills.

The education system consists of seven types of education described as follows.

1. First, general education is primary and secondary education program that focus on provision of broad based academic skills, needed for learners to pursue further education at high level of schooling.
2. Second, vocational education is secondary education program for preparing learners for a specific job.
3. Third, academic education, a higher education program of undergraduate and post-graduate level (sarjana and pasca sarjana), aiming at acquisition of specific science discipline.

Fourth, professional education, a higher education program after undergraduate (sarjana) program which prepares learners for jobs by acquiring particular skills and expertise.

Fifth, vocational and technical education is higher education program for preparing learners for jobs by acquiring applied knowledge at the maximum, equivalent to undergraduate program (sarjana).

Sixth, religious education is primary, secondary, and higher education program which prepare learners to perform their role, requiring the acquisition of religious knowledge, and/or to become a religious scholar.

Seventh, special education is provision of education program for the disabled and/or the gifted learners, organized inclusively or exclusively at primary and secondary level of schooling (see Figure 1.1. in the Appendices)

A complex range of institutions provides and delivers education in Indonesia. It caters to approximately 45 million students at all levels. The largest department responsible for the education management is the Ministry of National Education (MoNE), which administers formal public and private schools and universities, as well as non-formal modes of education. The efforts of this Ministry of National Education are supplemented by the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MoRA) that is responsible for development of Islamic education institution (so-called Madrasah) which also imparts general education besides the religious education. Islamic Primary Schools – called Madrasah Ibtidaiyah (MI) – are equivalent to primary schools or Sekolah Dasar (SD) and Islamic Junior Secondary Schools – called Madrasah Tsanawiyah (MTs) – are equivalent to General Junior Secondary School or Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP); and Islamic Senior Secondary Schools – called Madrasah Aliyah (MA) – are equivalent to Senior Secondary School or Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA). This madrasah provides 30 percent of the curriculum for religious teachings and 70 percent for general course of the same standard as of general schools. Thirty percent of the curriculum for religious teachings is achieved through extra curriculum.

Source: Fasli Djalal, P.H.D., THE SIXTH E-9 MINISTERIAL REVIEW MEETING, Policies and Systems for the Assessment of the Quality of Education, Monterrey, Mexico, 13-15 February 2006

Read more: 

Education-Indonesia-system http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Indonesia-EDUCATION.html#ixzz1QodQtqcL

http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Indonesia-EDUCATION.html

http://fromlearningtoteaching.blogspot.com/2008/04/indonesia-education-system.html

Education In Indonesia

The character of Indonesia's educational system reflects its diverse religious heritage, its struggle for a national identity, and the challenge of resource allocation in a poor but developing archipelagic nation with a young and rapidly growing population. Although a draft constitution stated in 1950 that a key government goal was to provide every Indonesian with at least six years of primary schooling, the aim of universal education had not been reached by the late 1980s, particularly among females--although great improvements had been made. Obstacles to meeting the government's goal included a high birth rate, a decline in infant mortality, and a shortage of schools and qualified teachers. In 1973 Suharto issued an order to set aside portions of oil revenues for the construction of new primary schools. This act resulted in the construction or repair of nearly 40,000 primary school facilities by the late 1980s, a move that greatly facilitated the goal of universal education.

Primary and Secondary Education

Following kindergarten, Indonesians of between seven and twelve years of age were required to attend six years of primary school in the 1990s. They could choose between state-run, nonsectarian public schools supervised by the Department of Education and Culture or private or semiprivate religious (usually Islamic) schools supervised and financed by the Department of Religious Affairs. However, although 85 percent of the Indonesian population was registered as Muslim, according to the 1990 census, less than 15 percent attended religious schools. Enrollment figures were slightly higher for girls than boys and much higher in Java than the rest of Indonesia. 

A central goal of the national education system in the early 1990s was not merely to impart secular wisdom about the world, but also to instruct children in the principles of participation in the modern nation-state, its bureaucracies, and its moral and ideological foundations. Since 1975, a key feature of the national curriculum--as in other parts of society--had been instruction in the Pancasila. Children age six and above learned its five principles--belief in one God, humanitarianism, national unity, democracy, and social justice--by rote and were instructed daily to apply the meanings of this key national symbol to their lives. The alleged communist coup attempt in 1965 provided a vivid image of transgression against the Pancasila. Partly to prove their rejection of communist ideology, all teachers--like other members of Indonesian bureaucracy--swore allegiance not only to the Pancasila, but to the government party of functional groups. 

Inside the public school classroom of the early 1990s, a style of pedagogy prevailed that emphasized rote learning and deference to the authority of the teacher. Although the youngest children were sometimes allowed to use the local language, by the third year of primary school nearly all instruction was conducted in formal Indonesian. Instead of asking questions of the students, a standard teaching technique was to narrate a historical event or to describe a mathematical problem, pausing at key junctures to allow the students to fill in the blanks. By not responding to individual problems of the students and retaining an emotionally distanced demeanor, the teacher is said to be sabar (patient), which is considered admirable behavior. 

Nationally, the average class size in primary schools was approximately twenty-seven, while upper-level classes included between thirty and forty students. Ninety-two percent of primary school students graduated, but only about 60 percent of those continued on to junior high school (ages thirteen through fifteen). Of those who went on to junior high school, 87 percent also went on to a senior high school (ages sixteen through eighteen). The national adult literacy rate remained at about 77 percent in 1991 (84 percent for males and 68 percent for females), keeping Indonesia tied with Brunei for the lowest literacy among the six member nations of the Association for Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). 

In the early 1990s, after completion of the six-year primary school program, students could choose among a variety of vocational and preprofessional junior and senior high schools, each level of which was three years in duration. There were academic and vocational junior high schools that could lead to senior-level diplomas. There were also "domestic science" junior high schools for girls. At the senior high-school level, there were three-year agricultural, veterinary, and forestry schools open to students who had graduated from an academic junior high school. Special schools at the junior and senior levels taught hotel management, legal clerking, plastic arts, and music. 

Teacher training programs were varied, and were gradually upgraded. For example, in the 1950s anyone completing a teacher training program at the junior high level could obtain a teacher's certificate. Since the 1970s, however, the teaching profession was restricted to graduates of a senior high school for teachers in a primary school and to graduates of a university-level education course for teachers of higher grades. Remuneration for primary and secondary school teachers compared favorably with countries such as Malaysia, India, and Thailand. Student-teacher ratios also compared favorably with most Asian nations at 25.3 to 1 and 15.3 to 1, respectively, for primary and secondary schools in the mid-1980s when the averages were 33.1 to 1 and 22.6 to 1 for Asian-Pacific countries.

Islamic Schools

The emphasis on the Pancasila in public schools has been resisted by some of the Muslim majority. A distinct but vocal minority of these Muslims prefer to receive their schooling in a pesantren or residential learning center. Usually in rural areas and under the direction of a Muslim scholar, pesantren are attended by young people seeking a detailed understanding of the Quran, the Arabic language, the sharia, and Muslim traditions and history. Students could enter and leave the pesantren any time of the year, and the studies were not organized as a progression of courses leading to graduation. Although not all pesantren were equally orthodox, most were and the chief aim was to produce good Muslims. 

In order for students to adapt to life in the modern, secular nation-state, the Muslim-dominated Department of Religious Affairs advocated the spread of a newer variety of Muslim school, the madrasa. In the early 1990s, these schools integrated religious subjects from the pesantren with secular subjects from the Western-style public education system. The less-than 15 percent of the school-age population who attended either type of Islamic schools did so because of the perceived higher quality instruction. However, among Islamic schools, a madrasa was ranked lower than a pesantren. Despite the widespread perception in the West of resurgent Islamic orthodoxy in Muslim countries, the 1980s saw little overall increase in the role of religion in school curricula in Indonesia. 

In general, Indonesia's educational system still faced a shortage of resources in the 1990s. The shortage of staffing in Indonesia's schools was no longer as acute as in the 1950s, but serious difficulties remained, particularly in the areas of teacher salaries, teacher certification, and finding qualified personnel. Providing textbooks and other school equipment throughout the farflung archipelago continued to be a significant problem as well.

Higher Education

Indonesia's institutions of higher education have experienced dramatic growth since independence. In 1950 there were ten institutions of higher learning, with a total of 6,500 students. In 1970 there were 450 private and state institutions enrolling 237,000 students, and by 1990 there were 900 institutions with 141,000 teachers and nearly 1,486,000 students. Public institutions enjoyed a considerably better student-teacher ratio (14 to 1) than private institutions (46 to 1) in the mid-1980s. Approximately 80 to 90 percent of state university budgets were financed by government subsidies, although the universities had considerably more autonomy in curriculum and internal structure than primary and secondary schools. Whereas tuition in such state institutions was affordable, faculty salaries were low by international standards. Still, university salaries were higher than primary and secondary school salaries. In addition, lecturers often had other jobs outside the university to supplement their wages. 

Private universities were operated by foundations. Unlike state universities, private institutions had budgets that were almost entirely tuition driven. Each student negotiated a one-time registration fee--which could be quite high--at the time of entry. If a university had a religious affiliation, it could finance some of its costs through donations or grants from international religious organizations. The government provided only limited support for private universities. 

Higher education in the early 1990s offered a wide range of programs, many of which were in a state of flux. Nearly half of all students enrolled in higher education in 1985 were social sciences majors. Humanities and science and technology represented nearly 28 percent and 21 percent, respectively. The major degrees granted were the sarjana muda (junior scholar; roughly corresponding to a bachelor's degree) and the sarjana (scholar or master's degree). Very few doktor (doctoral) degrees were awarded. Few students studying for the sarjana muda actually finished in one to three years. One study found that only 10 to 15 percent of students finished their course of study on time, partly because of the requirement to complete the traditional skripsi (thesis). In 1988, for instance, 235,000 new students were admitted for sarjana muda-level training and 1,234,800 were enrolled at various stages of the program, but only 95,600 graduated. 

Discussion about how to improve Indonesian higher education focused on issues of teacher salaries, laboratory and research facilities, and professor qualifications. According to official figures, in 1984 only 13.9 percent of permanent faculty members at state institutions of higher learning had any advanced degree; only 4.5 percent had a doctorate. Since doctoral programs were rare in Indonesia and there was little money to support education overseas, this situation improved only slowly. Despite these difficulties, most institutions of higher education received large numbers of applications in the late 1980s and early 1990s; in state institutions less than one application in four was accepted. One of the most serious problems for graduates with advanced degrees, however, was finding employment suited to their newly acquired education. 

The University of Indonesia, founded in Jakarta in the 1930s, is the nation's oldest university. Other major universities include Gadjah Mada University (Indonesia's oldest postindependence university, founded in 1946) in Yogyakarta; Catholic University and Institut Teknologi Bandung, both in Bandung; and the Institut Pertanian Bogor in Bogor. In the early 1990s, there also were important regional universities in Sulawesi, Sumatera Utara, Jawa Barat, and Irian Jaya.

Source: U.S. Library of Congress