The Origin of The Formation of the State

Country of Origin Occurrence Facts And Theoretical 

Origin of the state is divided into 2 In the Primary or the origin of the state based on the theoretical approach and In Secondary or origin of the state based on the facts. 

In Primary 

The occurrence of the state is the primary stages, starting from the simplest legal community, and then evolved to the level of the more advanced and not associated with the pre-existing state. Thus the state is the primary basis to discuss the origin of the first countries in the world. 

According to G. Jellinek, the state primarily through four phases (Phase), namely: 

• Phase Guild humans. 

• Phase kingdom. 

• Phase State. 

• Phase democratic State and Dictatorship

Stages of the State: 

Genoot Schaft (Tribe) 

There is a term that means the Primus interpares primary among others. 

Rijk / Reich (Empire) 

Here comes the awareness of property rights and land rights. 

Staat 

Awareness of the need for democracy and popular sovereignty. 

The dictatorship Natie 

Government led by a choice of the people who then ruled unanimously 

In Secondary 

The occurrence of the secondary states are discussing the new state associated with other countries that have been there before, in this regard, the recognition of other countries in the secondary theory is an important element of the establishment of a new country. 

To determine the occurrence of new states can use factual approach is an approach that is based on reality and experience the history that actually happened. 

According to historical fact, the occurrence of a state because:

a. Invasion / occupation (Occupasi). 

An area no later occupied by the master of a nation. Examples: Liberia occupied negro slaves who were freed in 1847. 

b. Relief (Proclamation). 

An area of particular countries, including district and state independence escape. Example: Belgian escape from the Dutch in 1839, Indonesia in 1945, Pakistan in 1947 (the provinces of Hindustan), Bangladesh in 1971 (the territory of Pakistan), 1975 Papua New Guinea (the territory of Australia), three Baltic countries (Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania ) escapes from the Soviet Union in 1991, etc.

c. Melting into one (fusion). 

Some countries have melting into one new country. Example: The Government of Germany (1871), Vietnam (1975), Germany (1990), etc.

d. Annexation / Possession (Anexatie) 

A nation stands at a region dominated (annexed) by other people without meaningful reaction. Example: the state of Israel was formed in 1948 when many districts annex Palestine, Syria, Jordan and Egypt. 

e. Unlearning and the formation of new states. 

A country is broken and disappeared, then appeared on the territory of the new country. 

Example: Germany into West Germany and East Germany in 1945. 

f. Fusion - Melting two or more countries and form one country. 

g. Acessie - Withdrawal. Increasing a region because the sea sedimentation a long period of time and is occupied by the group. 

h.Cessie - Submission. A district handed over to other countries based on the agreement. 

i. Innovation - A National burst, then disappear and bring new countries on it. 

j. Separation - a region that is part of the country, then broke away from its parent country and declared independence. Example: Belgium in 1839 to escape from the Netherlands 

In addition to studying the origin of the first occurrence of the country can also use a theoretical approach that is based on an approach that hipotesanya logical frame of mind has not been proven in a statement. On the basis of these approaches, there are several theories about the origin of the occurrence of the country:

a. Theory Godhead (theokratis). 

The rationale for this theory is the belief that everything that exists or happens in this universe is all the will of God, as well as state occurs due to the will of God. The remains of theory theokratis symbol appears in the sentence contained in the Constitution of various countries, such as: "... .. Over the grace of Almighty God" or "By the grace of God". 

This theory was pioneered by Augustine, Friedrich Julius Stahl, and Kraneburg. 

b. Theory of Power. 

According to this theory the state is formed because of the power, while power comes from those who are the most robust and powerful, so that the state is due to the people who have the power / authority to conquer the weak. 

c. Theory Society Agreement. 

According to this theory, the state is formed because a group of people who originally lived each individually entered into an agreement to form an organization that could hold a common interest. This theory is based on an understanding of human life is separated into two pre-state era (era naturally) and the state. 

This theory was pioneered by Thomas Hobbes. 

d. Natural Law Theory. 

According to this theory, the formation of the state and the law by looking at human society before their own lives. Thoughts on the plato and Aristotle 

e. Human face Agreement theory of natural conditions and violence arises. Mankind would be doomed if he does not change his ways. Humans also unite to overcome the challenges and using union in a single motion for the common good. 

CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING MEDIA

INTRODUCTION 

In essence, learning is a conscious effort of teachers or students or teachers to help their students so that they can learn according to their needs and interests. Learning is an activity that aims. This goal must be in line with the objectives of student learning and curriculum. The purpose of learning the student is achieving the optimal development, which includes cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. While the purpose of the curriculum is the fulfillment of all targetan goals in a written document to achieve the learning objectives based on defined levels. 

Learning activities carried out by the teacher. Therefore, teachers must demonstrate and develop dynamic elements when membelajarkan to students. Many of us have encountered, students are not interested in learning the material because the subject matter is boring. To avoid these symptoms, the teacher must select and organize the subject matter in such a way, that stimulate and challenge students to learn. 

In this case, the teacher is required to utilize the results of the technology, this connection is able to understand the medium (intermediate) so that the achievement of learning goals in the learning process. 

Further in this paper will explain the classification and also the characteristics of instructional media.

PROBLEM FORMULATION 

A. Definition of instructional media. 

B. Classification of instructional media. 

C. Characteristics of instructional media. 

D. The election procedure appropriate learning media.

DISCUSSION 

A. Definition of Learning Media 

The word comes from the Latin media medius, which literally means the middle, intermediate or introduction. In Arabic, the media is an intermediate (وسائل) or introductory message from the sender to the receiver of the message. Association for Education and Communication Technology (AECT) defines all forms of media that is used for the information distribution process. Gerlach and Ely (1971) says that if the media is understood broadly human, material, or events that establish the conditions that enable the child to acquire the knowledge, skills, or attitudes. In this sense, teachers, textbooks, and school environment is the media. More specifically, the notion of media in teaching and learning tends to be interpreted as graphical tools, photographic, or electronically to capture, process, and reconstruct visual or verbal information. [1] 

It can be concluded that the definition of media is something that is delivering the message and can stimulate thoughts, feelings, and willingness audience (students) so as to encourage the learning process in itself. Creative use of media will allow the audience (students) to learn better and can improve the performance of them in accordance with the objectives to be achieved. [2] 

B. Classification of Instructional Media 

Along the way, the development of instructional media with the current technological developments. The oldest technology that is utilized printing system that works on the basis of the mechanistic principles. Then the audio-visual technology combine mechanistic and electronic discovery for the purpose of learning. Last emerging technology is a micro processor that spawned the use of computers and interactive activities. Based on these developments, the learning media can be classified into 4 groups, namely: the result of printing technology media, audio-visual media technology results, media results are based on computer technology, print media merge results and computer technology. [3] 

According to Rudi Bretz classify the main characteristics of media on the following principal elements: sound, visual, and motion. To visually distinguished itself again in three forms, namely: visual images, line (graphic liner), and symbols. He also distinguishes broadcast media and recording media, so there are eight classifications of media; 

1. Audio-visual motion media
2. Audio-visual media silent 
3. Audio spring motion media
4. Visual motion media
5. Visual media silent 
6. Visual media spring motion 
7. Audio media
8. Print 

Meanwhile, according to Oemar H. Malik, there are four classifications of teaching media, namely: 

1. Visual tools that can be seen, 
2. The tools that are auditory or that can only be heard, 
3. Tools that can be seen and heard, 
4. Dramatization. 

But according to Gagne, there are seven kinds of media classification, namely: object to demonstrated, oral communication, print images, still images, motion pictures, silent films, machine learning. Seven kinds of media classification is then linked with its ability to meet the function according to the development level of the hierarchy learning stimulus learning thrower, towing interest in learning, learning behavior instances, given the external conditions, demanding way of thinking, rather incorporate knowledge, assess the achievements and give feedback behind. 

Based on some of the above classification can be concluded in general there are five, namely learning media: print-based media, visual-based media, audio-visual media-based, computer-based media, human-based media.

C. Characteristics of Learning Media 

Classification as described in the preceding description describes the characteristics or specific traits of each medium differ from one another in accordance with the object and purpose of the grouping. We can determine the characteristics of the media according to their economic review, the scope of covered targets, ease of control by the wearer and so on. Also can be seen from the ability of stimulation evokes the senses of sight, hearing, touch, conversation, or smell, or compliance with the hierarchy level of learning. As stated by Kemp (1975) is the basis for selecting the media in accordance with a particular learning situation. As was said by Arief S. Sadiman (1986) that the classification of the media, media characteristics, and media selection are inseparable in the determination of learning strategies. [4] Here is a further explanation of the characteristics of instructional media. 

1.Human-Based Media 

Among some human-based media media is the oldest media to transmit and communicate a message or information. This media is helpful, especially if our goal is to change attitudes or want to be directly involved with monitoring student learning. Media man can direct and influence the process of learning through guided exploration by analyzing from time to time what is happening in the learning environment. Often in an atmosphere of learning, the students have had a bad learning experience and see learning as something negative. Human instructor "as a media" can intuitively feel the needs of their students and gave pengalamn learn that will help achieve the learning objectives. 

Human-based media filed two effective techniques, the design is centered on the problem and asking Socratic. The design-centered learning problems constructed based on the problem to be solved by the student. With the following steps: 

1. Formulate relevant issues. 
2. Identify the knowledge and skills related to problem solving. 
3. Teach why knowledge is important and how that knowledge can be applied to solving the problem. 
4. Guided exploration of students. 
5. Develop problem in the context of the diverse stages of difficulty levels. 
6. The value of the student's knowledge by giving a new problem to be solved.

While the Socratic asked: 

1. Identify questions that ask students to share, analyze, evaluate, and synthesize their work or task. 
2. The lesson might begin with a large group discussion as a discussion of exploration. Students can then be grouped in small groups to explore issues and ideas that appear in a large group discussion. 
3. Determining whether students have to learn or to work together in groups, individually, one by one, or freely. 

One of the important factors in learning with human-based media is an interactive lesson plans.

1. Based Print Media 

Media-based mold is most commonly known textbooks, handbooks, journals, magazines, and a sheet of paper. In the print-based media are six things to consider when designing, namely: consistency, format, organization, attractiveness, font size, and the use of empty space. [5] 

Text-based interactive learning became popular in the 1960s with the terms of programmed learning materials for independent study. With this format, for each small unit of information is presented and student response prompted either by answering questions or participating in training activities. [6] 

Materials-based print media is the basis of development and use of most other learning materials. Which has the following characteristics: 

1. The text is read in a linear fashion. 
2. The text displays one-way communication and receptive.
3. Display static text. 
4. Development is highly dependent on the principles of language and visual perception. 
5. The text is oriented toward students. 
6. Information can be arranged and rearranged by the user. [7] 

Print-based media has the advantages of: 

• Message or information can present in significant amounts. 
• Message or information can be learned by the students according to the needs, interests, and speed respectively. 
• Can be studied anytime and anywhere, because it is easy to carry 
• Even more interesting if it is equipped with an image and color. 
• Repair or revision easy to do. 

While the weakness of the print-based media: 

• The manufacturing process requires considerable time. 
• Bold print materials that may be boring and deadly motivate students to read. 
• If the volumes and ugly paper, printed materials will be easily damaged and torn. [8]

2. Based Visual Media 

As well as print-based media, visual media is not much different from the print-based media. That is also the basis for the development and use of most other learning materials that have these characteristics: 

• Visually observed by space. 
• Visual displays are also one-way communication and reseptic. 
• Also displayed visually static. 
• Visual perception is used as a reference in the principles of linguistic text-based media.
• Visual media are also student oriented. 
• Information can be reorganized and governed by the user. [9] 

Visual-based media (image / metaphor) holds a very important role in the learning process. Visual media can facilitate comprehension (eg through elaboration and organizational structure) and strengthen memory. Visual can also cultivate students' interest and may give the relationship between the content of the subject matter to the real world. In order to be effective at, the visual should be placed in a meaningful context and students should interact with it to convince any visual information processing. [10] 

The advantages of visual-based media:

• More interesting because there is an image, thus providing a real experience for students. 
• It is easier to remember with a visual concept map, mapping maid and abbreviations. 
• Visual media can facilitate comprehension (eg through elaboration and organizational structure) and strengthen students' memories. 
• Visual can also cultivate students' interest and may give the relationship between the content of the subject matter to the real world. 

Shortage of Visual-Based Media: 

• There will be difficulties if students have problems in eyesight. 
• Students will not understand the picture if the picture is not clear or does not match the shape reality. 
• Can not serve students with auditory and kinesthetic learning styles. 
• Takes a long time to create images and specialized skills to present an image corresponding original form. [11]

3. Based Audio-Visual Media 

Audio-visual technology is a means to produce or deliver materials by using mechanical machinery and electronics, for presenting audio messages and visual. Characteristics-based audio-visual media are: 

• Linear 
• Presenting a dynamic visualization 
• Used in a manner predetermined by the designer or manufacturer
• Is a physical representation of the idea of ​​real or abstract ideas 
• Developed according to the tenets of cognitive psychology and behaveiorisme. 
• Generally oriented to teachers, the level of student involvement interaktivnya low. [12] 

Teaching through audio-visual, has a consumption characteristics of hardware during the learning process, such as the use of projectors, tape recorders, projectors visual width. So is teaching through audio-visual production and use of materials, applicability through sight and hearing, and was not entirely dependent on understanding words or symbols that are similar. [13] 

Excess-based audio-visual media: 

• More effective in receiving learning style because it can serve students auditory and visual language. 
• Can provide a more real experience than that delivered the audio and visual media. 
• Students will be quickly understood by hearing accompanied seen directly, so it is not just imagine. 
• More interesting and fun to use audio-visual media. 

Disadvantages-based audio-visual media: 

• Audio-visual media production requires a long time, because it combines two elements of the audio and visual. 
• Requires skill and precision in its manufacture. 
• Costs used in the manufacture of audio-visual media is quite expensive. 
• If there is no device manufacturing will be difficult to make it (hit tool manufacture). [14]

4. Computer-Based media

Computer-based technology is a way of resulting in or presenting the material using sources based micro-processor. Computer-based media have the characteristics:

a. Can be used at random, non-sequential, or linear fashion.

b. Can be used based on the desire of the student or by the desire of the designer or developer as planned.

c. Usually the ideas presented in abstract style with words, symbols, graphics.

d. The principles of cognitive science to develop this medium.

e. Learning-oriented students and involve high student interaction. [15]

Computer simulation provides the opportunity to learn in a dynamic, interactive, and individuals. The success of the simulation is influenced by three factors, namely: the scenario, the base model, and a layer of teaching. [16]

D. Selection Procedures Appropriate Learning Media

In the selection of instructional media should pay attention to effectiveness and efficiency. There are four criteria for media selection in operlu notice how proposed by Dick and Carrie:

1. Availability of local sources, if the media in question is not present in the existing sources then it should be bought or made ​​yourself. 
2. Availability of funds, personnel and facilities. 
3. Factors related to flexibility, practicality, and durability of the medium used for long periods of time; when used with devices anywhere and anytime around it as well as portability. 
4. Effectiveness and cost efficiency in a fairly long period of time, even if it seems expensive, but cheaper than other media which only use disposable. 

Media selection procedure as presented by Arif S Sadiman there are three models that can be used as a procedure in the selection of media to be used, namely:

1. Model 1 is a flow chart of the model using the elimination in the selection decision.
2. Matrix model, the form of deferred decision making model, the selection until all selection criteria were identified.
3. Model check list, the decision to suspend the election until all the criteria to be considered. [17]

Source :

[1] Azhar Arsyad, Media Pembelajaran, (Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada, 2003), hlm. 3

[2] Asnawir dan M. Basyirudin Usman, Media Pembelajaran,(Jakarta: Ciputat Pers, 2002), hlm. 11

[3] Cecep Kustandi dan Bambang Sudjipto, Media Pembelajaran, (Bogor: Ghalia Indonesia, 2011), hlm. 33

[4] Asnawir dan M. Basyirudin Usman, Media Pembelajaran,...hlm. 32

[5] Azhar Arsyad, Media Pembelajaran, (Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2010), hlm. 82-87.

[6] Azhar Arsyad, Media Pembelajaran,... hlm. 90

[7] Cecep Kustandi dan Bambang Sudjipto, Media Pembelajaran,...hlm.33-34.

[8] Kurtek.upi.edu/media/sources/2-klasifikasi media.pdf. 3/4/2013.pkl11:56.

[9] Cecep Kustandi dan Bambang Sudjipto, Media Pembelajaran,...hlm. 36.

[10]  Azhar Arsyad, Media Pembelajaran,... hlm. 91.

[11] http://gtnheni.blogspot.com/2011/12/kelebihan-dan-kekurangan-jenis-jenis.html.3/4/2013.pkl11:56.

[12]  Cecep Kustandi dan Bambang Sudjipto, Media Pembelajaran..., hlm. 34

[13]  Azhar Arsyad, Media Pembelajaran,..., hlm. 30.

[14] http://gtnheni.blogspot.com/2011/12/kelebihan-dan-kekurangan-jenis-jenis.html, 3/4/2013.pkl.11:50

[15]  Cecep Kustandi dan Bambang Sudjipto, Media Pembelajaran..., hlm. 34

[16]  Azhar Arsyad, Media Pembelajaran,...hlm. 98.

[17] Asnawir dan M. Basyirudin Usman, Media Pembelajaran,...hlm. 126-127

The types and characteristics LEARNING MEDIA

Media in the learning process can be grouped into three major groups, namely audio media, visual media, audio-visual media.

1. Audio Media

Audio media is media that involves only the sense of hearing and is only able to manipulate sound capabilities alone. 

Characteristics audio media 

The main characteristic of this medium is the message that is routed through the audio medium is poured in the auditory symbol, both verbal and nonverbal. 

2. Visual Media 

Visual media is media that involves the sense of sight. 

Characteristics of visual media 

a. picture 

Images can be broadly divided in three types, namely sketches, paintings and photographs. 

b. graphs 

The graph is a simple image that is more or less an accurate depiction of the quantitative data in the form of an attractive and easy to understand. 

c. diagram 

Diagrams are often also used to describe the location of the parts of a tool or machine as well as the relationship with the other parts. 

d. Chart 

Chart is similar to the diagram. The difference is more emphasis on a chart or a development process or an organizational arrangement. Chart sometimes accompanied by symbols or pictures, then this pictorial nature. There is also a chart that is coupled with a brief description. 

e. map 

Map is a picture of the earth's surface or part thereof. Actually, the map can be called as well as charts. 

3. Media Audio Visual 

Audio-visual media is media that involves the senses of hearing and sight. 

Characteristics of audio-visual media: Media that involve images and sound.

This Type Of Learning/Enrichment Activities

There is a slight difference between "learning with activities". In the dictionary of the language of Indonesia, learning is a process, a way, deeds makes people or living beings learn. While the activity is an activity; effort; jobs; strength and agility (in trying); excitement. From the difference, it could be explained that the enrichment learning experiences which are given to students who go beyond minimum requirements prescribed by the curriculum (not all students can do it). While in enrichment activities are activities that are given to students in the fast Group leverages the advantages of time so that they have the knowledge that is richer and better skills. There is really no fundamental difference between the enrichment learning activities for the enrichmen

In selecting and implementing the activities for the enrichment, the teacher needs to pay attention to whether that activity in accordance with the characteristics of the enrichment activities. What are the characteristics of these enrichment activities? According to Guskey in Julaeha (2007) there are two characteristics of the enrichment activities, namely: 

1. the enrichment Activities are activities that are fun and give you the satisfaction of control (not a repetition of previous learning activities). 
2. Enrichment activity is an activity that should be challenging for students who are demanding the application of higher-order cognitive abilities (analysis, sistesis, evaluation, and creation).

A. types of Enrichment Learning 

according to Mone (2008) in the Guide organization of the Learning Enrichment, there are at least three types of enrichment learning, namely: 

1. exploratory Activities are presented to students in the form of historical events, books, community leaders, and so on that are not covered in the regular curriculum. 
2. Process skills needed by students in order to succeed in doing the study topics of interest in the form of independent learning. 
3. Problem solving by students who have the ability to learn quickly is a real problem-solving using a problem-solving approach. It is characterized by problem solving: 

• the identification of the problems will be solved, 
• the determination of the focus issue/problem to be solved, 
• the use of various sources of supporting data collection, 
• using relevant techniques, 
• data analysis, 
• results of a false assertion.

B. types of Enrichment Activities

in designing and implementing activities for the enrichment, teacher applying individual approach. Enrichment activities more flexible compared to the activity of remedial. This means that the enrichment activities in order to utilize the remaining time is an activity that is fun and can stimulate the creativity of the students independently. There are several activities that can be designed and implemented by teachers in relation to enrichment. The following are some enrichment activities expressed by Julaeha (2007):

1. Peer Tutor in addition to effective peer tutors, remedial activities also effectively used in enrichment activities. Through peer tutor keiatan, understanding the concept of a student will increase because they will have to master the concepts will be explained they must also seek techniques to explain the concept to his friend. In addition Peer tutors can also develop a high level of cognitive ability. 
2. Develop Training Group Students quickly can be asked to develop practical exercises which can be carried out by peers who are slow. This activity can be done to the detriment of material that requires a lot of practice, for instance in the subjects of mathematics. The teacher can also ask the students to create a quick group problems exercises along with the answer that will be used in the remedial activities or as an exercise in peer tutor activities.
3. Develop Media and learning resources Student groups are given the opportunity to make quick work of the model, the game or the paper related to the materials studied was then utilized as a learning resource for students groups later. 
4. Does the project student involvement in a project or prepare a special report relating to the matter being studied is the most enjoyable enrichment activities. This activity can increase the motivation to learn, opportunities to develop talent, and add new insights for students groups quickly.
5. Give the game, problems or the competence of among students in this activity, the teacher can give assignments to students to solve a problem or game related to the subject matter that they feel challenged. Through these activities, they will try to solve the problem or a game and they will also learn from each other by comparing the strategies/techniques they use in solving problems or games provided. 

That's some kind of learning enrichment and enrichment activities that can be designed and implemented by teachers in order to help students to develop an insight so that its potential is growing optimally. Teachers can determine and choose their own enrichment activities provided in accordance with the characteristics of the enrichment activities. Hopefully useful!

Motivating Student

Students who are not prepared to follow the learning process will not be able to achieve the goals that have been set. Motivation is the way that teachers can do to prepare students to be ready to follow the learning process to be implemented. Sulitkah motivating students? For teachers who are professional and have extensive education insights is certainly not difficult to motivate students. But what about the teachers who have less insight? For teachers who actually have less insight, motivate students it's very easy to do, simply turn the Palm of the hand. The thing is, if students are motivated?

Keep in mind that the development of a person is influenced by three factors (according to the experts) are: congenital factors, environmental factors, and congenital factors & environment. I took we agree because most education experts also agreed that the development of a person affected by congenital factors and environmental factors. If the role of the innate factor by 50% then environmental factors that 50% was divided into three and again i.e.

1. family environmental factors, is the most main environment affects the development and growth of students. A family needs to create a good environment to create an atmosphere of learning that can provide an opportunity to students to be able to grow and develop optimally and irregularities do not occur. 
2. school environmental factors, is the student environment where he studied through a figure called the teacher. In this environment the students actually had only one purpose and that is to learn (autobiography). If the atmosphere in the school environment is not conducive, it will be very difficult to achieve the learning objectives that had been planned by the teacher. 
3. environmental factors of society, is the social environment where students interact with the world outside the family environment. The environmental community is very great influence on the development of the child.

Students are motivated by the teacher when it is being studied and is in the school environment. How much influence the motivation of the teachers if compared with the motivation that comes from the surrounding community and family environment?. If I may berandai least not only 30% of 50% (environmental factors) influence. Well what if given the motivation of teachers affected it is not strong enough? Certainly environmental factors of the family and the community will be very dominant affect students. This is where the necessary expertise is a teacher who really professional. Teachers are able to motivate so as to provide the dominant influence for students.

On the other hand, the teacher as the cutting edge of education usually become scapegoats in the Community (not the Government) If students studying in schools in the framework of education could not attain the expected competency. Whereas in sekolahpun there are other factors including schools and infrastructure means the Government's role in motivating students not less important.Unfortunately those factors are less taken into account by the community. 

There is a sort of paradigm developing in society: If students are clever/smart, then asked people is: "a child who he is?" But, if the stupid students then asked people is: "who the hell is her teacher, how really stupid?" Sorry for the teachers if heard as what I heard of it!

Methods Of Teaching Fellow (Peer Teaching Methods)

There was the time a teacher suffered a deadlock in choosing effective methods for applied learning process in order to achieve the expected competencies mastered by students. Although various learning methods, determine which method is most suitable to be applied is not easy work. This is actually a teacher prosecuted keprofesionalannya as educators, counselors, and teachers

In General, students are very interested in new things. On the basis that a teacher must jelly in select the learning method to students staying motivated and keen to learn. Methods of teaching fellow (peer teaching methods) can be used as an option to meet it. Just don't get too often applied due to the effect, the study will ultimately monotonous and boring student.

Peer teaching method is a technique of delivering learning through peer or help themselves. Starting from the discussion of the matter until an assessment is also made of and by the students in the group itself (self assessment and peer assessment). As for the value of the end is a merger between the assessment by teachers and peers. From the defenisi, the teacher should be able to modify the method of peer teaching to fit the student applied for SD (high grade) especially on the part of his assessment.

Cooperative learning with this technique can be implemented in conjunction with the method of discussion. Prerequisites for implementing learning with peer teaching method in the class, there are some students who have to fast (smart) and all students are likely to have relevant knowledge base.

Step-by-step method teaching fellow (peer teaching methods) 

1. Teacher explains the topic, learning objectives, and measures/activities that will be undertaken by students 
2. to divide students into several groups of 4-6 students evenly (each group there is a clever student)
3. in the company of his students learn from and with another fellow in a way of mutual benefit as well as the sharing of knowledge, ideas, and experiences of each. 
4. Each Member of the group being sued gave their own opinions as well as responses that will be merged in a single conclusion. 
5. Each group formulated the results of its discussions in one conclusion on the basis of mutual agreement. 
6. A few minutes later (about 20 minutes) one of the members of each group are taking turns teaching the results of his findings in the presence of other groups. 
7. Each group was asked to give a response (criticism, suggestions, opinions, questions, comments, etc.) and discuss differences of opinion until the problem is resolved every 
8. problem that comes up is noted by teachers and given the solution 
9. Teachers give conclusion problems and solving them, so each student's understanding of the uniform. 
10. The assessment is done by teachers during the learning process is ongoing (especially in step 3)

Benefits of peer teaching method 

• Improving students ' learning motivation
• Improve the quality of the learning process 
• Enhances the interactive social learning 
• Encourages students in students towards higher-order thinking skills are 
• Developed to work in groups
• Improve the sense of responsibility for their own learning 
• Build a spirit of working together
• Train the skills of communicating 
• Improve the results of learning

Disadvantages of peer teaching method 

• Requires a relatively long time 
• If students do not have the relevant knowledge base then this method ineffective 
• Likely dominated by students who love to talk, clever, or who want to accentuate themselves 
• Not all teachers truly understand how each students work in groups 
• Need to be modified to fit applied to students (this technique is usually applied in college) 
• Requires extra strict teacher attention

Reference:

Research results Lyn Longaretti, et al (The University of Melbourne)-Centre for Development of Teaching and Learning (CDTL). National University of Singapore, at: http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/

Writing by Dictation

Writers have different thinking styles that can determine the most effective way for them to record their thoughts. A writer who is very good at verbalizing may consider using dictation as a method to write. Recent advances in speech-to-text software makes this a viable choice. Fiction writing seems the most suitable to the writing by diction method. There are advantages and disadvantages in this method. 

Questions you may have include:

1. What styles of thinking affect writing?
2. How does diction work?
3. What are the pros and cons of this method?

This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.

Thinking styles affect writing

People have different ways of thinking and expressing their thoughts. Some can easily visualize what they want to say and put those pictures into words on paper, while others who think in terms of sounds and can easily explain their ideas verbally. There are some people who are extreme in only one style of thinking. Most of us work in both modes but have a preference of one over the other.

Visual thinkers

If you can visualize what you want to say, you are probably best at expressing your thoughts on a word processor or by writing in longhand. Some visual thinkers also think in a very organized manner. They may prefer to work with outlining word processors to document (and organize) their thoughts.

It may be difficult for a visual thinker to write by dictation, although it is worth a try.

Auditory thinkers

If you often think in terms of sounds you are called an auditory thinker. You can explain your ideas verbally but struggle to put those thoughts on paper. If you prefer to work in this mode, dictation methods may be a solution for material written.

Dictation methods

Methods to use dictation to put your thoughts on paper include using a typist to transcribe your dictation and using speech-to-text software.

Having a typist transcribe dictation

Dictating to a secretary who writes down your thoughts in shorthand used to be practiced in many business offices. It really isn't a viable writing method and is just stated for historical purposes.

Another dictation method is to speak into a tape recorder and then have a typist transcribe the material into text. You may be your own typist or use a professional transcriber or secretary to do the typing. This method has been used for years in the business community for writing memos and letters.

Earle Stanley Gardner

Writer Earle Stanley Gardner, who originated and wrote the Perry Mason series of books, dictated a major portion of his material. The story goes to that Gardner originally wrote his stories on a manual typewriter until his fingers bled. Seeking a better method, he turned to dictating the stories into a tape recorder and having secretaries transcribe the material into print. At one time he had nine secretaries transcribing at one time. He was a very prolific writer.

Using speech-to-text software

The modern method is to use speech recognition or speech-to-text software that allows a you to dictate directly into a microphone that is attached to your computer. The material is then automatically translated into text in a word processor. It is done with reasonable accuracy, and if something doesn't look right, you can easily delete it with a verbal command and correct it or start over.

Nuance's Dragon NaturallySpeaking is the top speech recognition application. They have versions ranging from Standard to Professional, depending on the features needed. You can buy Dragon NaturallySpeaking 9 Standard for about $82. They claim a 99% accuracy rate.

Using digital recorder

You can also use certain digital recorders to express your thoughts and then convert your recording into text automatically at a later time. In such a case, you need Dragon NaturallySpeaking 10 Preferred to transcribe audio from a digital recorder in speech-to-text. The program accepts MP3 and WMA audio files.

Use an Olympus WS-300M 256 MB Digital Voice Recorder that can be purchased for about $79. The recorder is very compact and can double as a music player. If you want more music playing capabilities, you can buy the 1 GB version, which of course costs more. The nice thing about this recorder is that you can directly plug it into your computer's USB port to download your audio files. No extra software is required to put the audio files onto your hard drive.

Once your dictation file is on your hard drive, you select it from Dragon NaturallySpeaking, and the program transcribes your story material in Word or other word processor. The software even has a playback feature that will read your text back to you.

Pros and cons of dictation

There are advantages and disadvantages to using dictation methods to create and write material.

Advantages

One advantage of dictating your thoughts is that it speeds up the writing process. Also, if you think verbally, you may lose good thoughts during the slow typing process. Another advantage of dictation is that it is a good to way to input written notes, taken at a meeting, lecture or seminar.

Seems best with fiction

Writing fiction is especially suitable to dictation. Writing a screenplay would be also work well with dictation. When writing fiction, TV or screenplays, dictation can be used to act out the roles of your characters during the writing process.

One reason that fiction may be especially suitable to dictation is the fact that often the creative process is more free-association. Fiction is not as structured as technical writing, which is often easily outlined with numbered steps. Another factor is that the writer can often get "into character" and create conversations during the dictation process.

Disadvantages

One disadvantage of dictation is that it can be cumbersome and takes some practice. Dictation software is fairly accurate, but you still need to be aware of errors or incorrect words. Also, you can often organize your thoughts better when writing or typing. Verbal communication is linear, where writing allows you to skip around.

Another drawback to dictation is that most people think visually, rather than completely verbally.

Summary

Dictation software is a great tool to enhance your writing. Some people can be highly creative through dictation, while others may struggle with it. Experiment to see how you best perform with the use of this technique of writing.