A Brief History of The Hebrew language

Disclaimer: This page provides a rudimentary overview of the history of the Hebrew script and is by no means intended to replace careful study of paleolinguists and other specialists in the field of ancient writing systems. For scholarly research, please see the Links page.

About the Name "Hebrew" Hebrew (Ivrit: ) is the name given to one of the world's oldest languages. The name derives from Eber ('ever) (), the son of Shem; 'ever means "region across or beyond" and derives from a root that means to pass over. Shem is called , "the father of all of the sons of Eber" (Gen 10:21); and therefore Hebrew descendants are called Semites. In the Scriptures, Hebrew is used as an adjective () to describe Jews who are "from the other side" (i.e., of the Euphrates River). Modern Hebrew is called Ivrit. In Genesis 31:47, Laban and Jacob refer to a heap of stones in their native speech. Laban uses the phrase "Yegar Sahaduta" which is Aramaic, but Jacob uses () "Gal-Ed" which is Hebrew  Primordial Origins The Garden of Eden, or gan eden () is known as the first paradise, the location for the origin of man made b'tzelem elohim, in the image of God. This image included the ability to use a God-given language (a theory that an original source language was given in Eden is called "Edenics"). Man was exiled from Eden, however, and began to be dispersed upon the face of the earth. The Great Flood, or mabul () effected judgment upon the antediluvian clans for their constant wickedness before the LORD. The only survivors were the direct descendants of the clan of Noach. The Toldot b'nei Noach (the generations of Noah, or Table of 70 Nations as listed in Genesis 10) indicate some of the earliest migration of clans. Noah's son Shem is also called  , "the father of all of the sons of Eber" (Gen 10:21); his toldot is given in Genesis 11:10ff. The Tower of Babel, or migdal bavel () located in the "plains of Shinar" of ancient Mesopotamia (Gen 11:1-9) is historically identified as the original site of ancient Babylon. Perhaps the tower was a form of idolatrous ziggurat meant to unify the ancients. Abraham, a descendant of the clan of Eber, was called by God from Ur of the Chaldees (i.e., kasdim) c. 1800 BCE? to the land of Canaan. The language in Canaan at that time has been called "proto-Canaanite," the parent language of the dialects of Hittites, Amorites, Hivites, Jebusites, Perizites. In relation to the Hebrews, proto-Canaanite script may be called ketav Ivri. During the 400 years that Abraham's clan was in Egypt (Genesis 15:13), the Hebrews still spoke a Canaanite variant (e.g. Joseph's brothers in Egypt: see Genesis 42:23). An article of orthodox Jewish faith is that God originally revealed the Torah to Moses using Ketav Ashurit (from ashrei), not ketav Ivri, since the earlier script was considered profane and riddled with paganism. After Moses broke the first set of tablets, however, God wrote the second set using the profane script. After the Babylonian captivity, ketav Ashurit was fully restored to the Jewish people by Ezra the Scribe and came to be called Lashon HaKodesh (the holy language). This same script has been used until this day for the writing of Torah scrolls. Modern soferut (scribal arts) include the Bet Yosef, Bet Ari, and Sephard styles of ketav Ashurit for Sifrei Torah (torah scrolls). A Midrash on the Migdal Bavel (Tower of Babel) teaches that at the end of time all people will once again speak one language, and that will be a purified form of the Hebrew tongue. There is also d'rash on the verse: "For then I will make the peoples pure of speech, so that they all invoke the LORD by name And serve Him with one accord" (Zeph 3:9) that indicates the same.  Proto-Canaanite Pictographs Like other ancient writing systems, the Hebrew alphabet originally was written using a pictographic script: Note: For more information about pictographs and their meanings, click here. The Phoenecian Script The Phoenician alphabet developed from the proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was created sometime between the 18th and 17th centuries BC. Image courtesy of Omniglot The Proto-Hebrew Script This is also called early Aramaic Script. The key extant example is the Moabite Stone. This was the Hebrew (ketav Ivri) used by the Jewish nation up to the Babylonian Exile (or, according to Orthodox Jews, until the Exodus from Egypt).  At the end of the 6th century BC ketav Ivri was replaced by the Hebrew square script (ketav meruba). Image courtesy of Omniglot Note: Ketav Ivri was used during in the First Temple period and as a symbol of nationalistic revival in the Second Temple Period. A modified version of this script (Samaritan) is still extant today (see next). The Samaritan Script While the Jews adopted the Aramaic alphabet (under the leadership of Ezra the Scribe), the Samaritans held on to the original forms of proto-Hebrew, perhaps to show themselves the true heirs of Judaism. For this reason Ezra chose the Aramaic square script (called Ketav Ashuri or Ketav Meruba). Classical Hebrew Script (ketav Ashurit) After the Babylonian captivity, ketav Ashurit was adopted by the Jews (under the leadership of Ezra the Scribe) and called Leshon HaKodesh (the holy language). This was done probably to distance themselves from Samaritanism. The Aramaic characters were chosen as the official script for the Torah scrolls in the 5th century BC (the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) were written during a transitional period where both the older ketav Ivri script is used with ketav Ashurit). This classical Hebrew script was used for centuries before the time of Messiah, and has remained unchanged unto this day: Modern Hebrew Cursive The modern Hebrew script (used in Israel today) derives from Polish-German Jews. Rashi-Style Hebrew The Rashi style is used mainly to write commentaries on texts. It is named in honor of Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki (1040-1105 AD) a.k.a. Rashi, one of the greatest medieval Jewish scholars and bible commentators: Note: Ladino (Judeo-Spanish) and Yiddish (Judeo-German) both evolved during the middle ages and use the Hebrew characters for transliteration only. Ladino uses a Rashi-style script, whereas Yiddish uses the standard square script. Periods of Hebrew Scholars often divide the Hebrew language into four basic periods: Biblical Hebrew – aka Classical Hebrew; by the time of Jesus, Aramaic was the common language, but Hebrew was used in synagogues and in Temple worship. Jesus knew and spoke Biblical Hebrew. Mishnaic Hebrew – aka Rabbinic Hebrew; Talmud and Midrash; 2nd century AD. Note that the grammar and vocabulary of this Hebrew is very different than Biblical Hebrew. Medieval Hebrew – Used to translate Arabic works into Hebrew, e.g., Maimonides and other medievalists. Modern Hebrew – 19th century to present. Eliezar Ben Yehuda (1858-1922) led the rebirth of Hebrew as a spoken language. After immigrating to Israel in 1881, he began promoting the use of Hebrew at home and in the schools.

The Story of Human Language

"I never met a person who is not interested in language," wrote the bestselling author and psychologist Steven Pinker. There are good reasons that language fascinates us so. It not only defines humans as a species, placing us head and shoulders above even the most proficient animal communicators, but it also beguiles us with its endless mysteries. For example:

• How did different languages come to be?
• Why isn’t there just a single language?
• How does a language change, and when it does, is that change indicative of decay or growth?
• How does a language become extinct?

Dr. John McWhorter, one of America’s leading linguists and a frequent commentator on network television and National Public Radio, addresses these and other questions as he takes you on an in-depth, 36-lecture tour of the development of human language, showing how a single tongue spoken

150,000 years ago has evolved into the estimated 6,000 languages used around the world today.

An accomplished scholar, Professor McWhorter is also a skilled popularizer, whose book The Power of Babel was called "startling, provocative, and remarkably entertaining," by the San Diego Union-Tribune.

The London Times called him "a born teacher." And Steven Pinker, best known as the author of The Language Instinct, offered this praise for the book: "McWhorter’s arguments are sharply reasoned, refreshingly honest, and thoroughly original."

Discover How Linguists Think

For the past century linguistics has been one of the most exciting and productive fields in the social sciences. In the process of telling the story of language, Professor McWhorter introduces you to some of the current controversies in the discipline:

• Noam Chomsky has famously argued that the ability to use language is innately specified in the human brain. What is the evidence for and against this hypothesis?
• The popular media have widely reported that words from the world’s first language have been reconstructed. Professor McWhorter looks at the reasoning behind this work and the objections to it.
• One of the most enticing ideas of 20th-century linguistics is that language determines the way we perceive the world. But is this really true?
• The Ebonics debate of the mid-1990s focused attention on Black English. What is the nature of this dialect? Where did it come from?

Professor McWhorter also briefs you on the recent connection made between an obscure language of Nepal and the language family of Papua New Guinea, which may represent the oldest documentable historical relationship between words, extending back as far as 75,000 years.

In discovering how linguists think, you will begin to see language in an entirely new way. You will learn that everything about a language is eternally and inherently changeable, from its word order and grammar to the very sound and meaning of basic words.

That’s why Professor McWhorter describes language as "like one of those lava lamps from the 1970s. It’s not marching toward an ideal, and it’s not slowly going to the dogs. It’s always just variations of the same thing—endless morphings."

A Wealth of Examples from a Teacher Passionate about Language

In an interview with the New York Times, Professor McWhorter said: "Languages have been a passion since I was a small child. I used to teach them to myself as a hobby. I speak three and a bit of Japanese, and can read seven."

In this course, he includes these languages and many more as examples. Anyone who has ever studied a language will surely find it discussed—along with Albanian, Armenian, Turkish, Sanskrit, Mandarin, Cantonese, Tibetan, Korean, Tagalog, Maori, Fijian, Samoan, Gullah, Hopi, Mohawk, Navajo, Yupik Eskimo, Quechua, and Welsh, as well as Latin, Greek, German, Russian, French, Spanish, Swedish, and many others.

It’s remarkable how much light one language sheds on another. For example, the ancestor language of English is Proto-Germanic, and the ancestor of that is Proto-Indo-European. A curious transformation took place in the consonants of Proto-Germanic, in which Proto-Indo-European p became f; d became t; and so on with other consonant pairs. So Latin pater is English father, and Latin decem is English ten. This rule is called Grimm’s Law after its discoverer—the same Jacob Grimm who collected folk tales.

Such patterns make relationships among different languages clear and make learning these languages much easier.

What You Will Learn

Language basics. In Lecture 1, you start by comparing human language to animal communication and ask, how valid are claims that animals such as chimpanzees have rudimentary language skills? Then you look at intriguing evidence that links a specific gene to the ability to use language. The first appearance of this gene in humans has been calculated and gives a surprisingly early date for the birth of language.

Chomsky’s revolution. In Lecture 2, Professor McWhorter notes that linguists are often mistakenly thought to be translators or experts on word histories. But their work takes them far deeper into language. For example, Noam Chomsky and his coworkers have been searching for the grammatical properties common to all languages—an effort that has revolutionized linguistics, though not without controversy.

Change is the norm. In Lectures 3–7, you learn the specific mechanisms responsible for language change, from phenomena such as the tone system in Chinese to the gradual shift in the meanings of words over time. You will find that even the parts of Shakespeare you believe you understand may not mean what you think.

Beginnings. In Lectures 8–13, you explore language families, starting with Indo-European, comprising languages from India to Ireland including English. Other language families discussed are Semitic, Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, Bantu, and Native American. You also look at the heated debate over the first language.

Dialects. In Lectures 14–19, you cover dialects. Often one dialect is chosen as the standard, and when it is used in writing, it changes more slowly than the dialects that are just spoken. One consequence is that people who speak written languages are often taught that the constructions they produce spontaneously are errors.

Mixing it up. In Lectures 20–22, you study the phenomenon of language mixture. The first language’s 6,000 branches have not only diverged into dialects, but they have been constantly mixing with one another on all levels: vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and usage. As a result, English comprises a vocabulary of largely borrowed terms.

How English got that way. In Lectures 23–25, you learn how processes of change lead some languages to develop more grammatical machinery than they need, while others become streamlined, shedding such complexities. English is an interesting example of the latter tendency.

Prisoner of grammar? In Lecture 26, you examine the famous Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which proposes that features of our grammars channel how we think.

New languages from old. In Lectures 27–32, Professor McWhorter focuses on pidgins and creoles. When people learn a language quickly without being explicitly taught, they develop a pidgin version of it. Then if they need to use this pidgin on an everyday basis it becomes a real language, a creole. Some people argue that Black English is a creole, and Professor McWhorter devotes a lecture to this issue.

Extinction. In Lectures 33 and 34, you come full circle. Having explored the processes that give birth to new languages, you now learn how languages become extinct and what can be done to preserve them.

Conclusion. In Lectures 35 and 36, you explore artificial languages, including Esperanto and sign languages for the deaf, and conclude by examining a single English sentence etymologically. In the process, you learn how word histories reflect the phenomena of language change and mixture worldwide.

The Armory of the Mind

Professor McWhorter covers a wealth of material, enlivened with wit and personal observations:

• Concerning Shakespeare’s language, he points out that the Tin Man in The Wizard of Oz sings Juliet’s line "Wherefore art thou Romeo?" in a cadence that suggests "where" as the meaning of wherefore. But in Elizabethan usage, wherefore means "why."
• Discussing the concept of language as a continuum, he recalls getting into an elevator with two Guyanese linguists. The Guyanese were speaking English in the lobby, but as they ascended they started introducing more and more of their native creole, so by the time they exited, their conversation was incomprehensible to Dr. McWhorter.
• On the subject of sound change, he observes that the written syllable aw is pronounced ah by an increasing number of Americans, a phenomenon he first noticed in California. "Sushi is ‘raw' fish," he says. "But more and more people are saying, ‘rah’ fish."
• A devotee of the classic British comedy series Are You Being Served?, he enthusiastically recommends it for its generous sampling of nonstandard British accents.

Language is indeed a powerful tool—"the armory of the human mind" in the words of poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge. With this course, you will be richly rewarded in investigating what linguists have learned about the origin and evolution of the marvelous gift of speech.

How to Teach English As A Foreign Language To Children

Do you have a love of the English language and of teaching children? Then Teaching English as a Foreign Language may be the ideal career for you

Step 1
It is important to have a general understanding of children and of child development so you can plan your lessons accordingly.

Step 2
It is a good idea to have at least a basic knowledge of the language in the country in which you're teaching, since the children may be quite young and have a low level of English.

Step 3
It is important to try and only use English the entire time in the classroom with the children. If they don't understand something you say, show them. Demonstrate as much as possible and remember to use many games, songs, and activities to get them moving.

Step 4
Never force the children to speak. They should enjoy the lessons and not feel stressed about going to English class. The best way to get them to speak is to show them a picture and to say something like 'Is this a bird, or a cat?' and try to use a word that they already know. They usually want to speak it then.

Benefits of Foreign Language for Young Children

Foreign Languages for Toddlers

has never been so fun and easy!
Foreign language for babies:

Familiarizes babies with the rhythm of other languages.

Stimulates the part of the brain that processes language, with proven benefits for development of language.

Provides fun way for babies and parents to bond, as they watch and listen for new words together.

Foreign language for toddlers and preschoolers:

They begin to pick up the vocabulary and use it in everyday speech.

Toddlers realize every English word has an equivalent in another language, which fosters greater cognitive abilities.

They develop a better accent and think foreign language learning is fun!

Read scientific research about the benefits of learning a foreign language at a young age.

History Of Saint Patrick day's

St Patrick is known as the patron saint of Ireland. True, he was not a born Irish. But he has become an integral part of the Irish heritage, mostly through his service across Ireland of the 5th century.

Patrick was born in the later half of the 4th century AD. There are differing views about the exact year and place of his birth. According to one school of opinion, he was born about 390 A.D., while the other school says it is about 373 AD. Again, his birth place is said to be in either Scotland or Roman England. His real name was probably Maewyn Succat. Though Patricius was his Romanicized name, he was later came to be familiar as Patrick.

Patrick was the son of Calpurnius, a Roman-British army officer. He was growing up as naturally as other kids in Britain. However, one day a band of pirates landed in south Wales and kidnapped this boy along with many others. Then they sold him into slavery in Ireland. The was there for 6 years, mostly imprisoned. This was when changes came to him. He dreamed of having seen God. Legend says, he was then dictated by God to escape with a getaway ship.

Finally, he did escape and went to Britain. And then to France. There he joined a monastery and studied under St. Germain, the bishop of Auxerre. He spent around 12 years in training. And when he became a bishop he dreamed that the Irish were calling him back to Ireland to tell them about God. The Confessio, Patrick's spiritual autobiography, is the most important document regarding this. It tells of a dream after his return to Britain, in which one Victoricus delivered him a letter headed "The Voice of the Irish."

So he set out for Ireland with the Pope's blessings. There he converted the Gaelic Irish, who were then mostly Pagans, to Christianity. He was confident in the Lord, he journeyed far and wide, baptizing and confirming with untiring zeal. And, in a diplomatic fashion he brought gifts to a kinglet here and a lawgiver there,but accepted none from any.

Indeed, Patrick was quite successful at winning converts. Through active preaching, he made important converts even among the royal families. And this fact upset the Celtic Druids. Patrick was arrested several times,but escaped each time. For 20 years he had traveled throughout Ireland, establishing monasteries across the country. He also set up schools and churches which would aid him in his conversion. He developed a native clergy, fostered the growth of monasticism, established dioceses, and held church councils.

Patrick's doctrine is considered orthodox and has been interpreted as anti-Pelagian. Although he is not particularly noted as a man of learning, a few of his writings remain extant: his Confession, a reply to his detractors, and several letters. The Lorica ("Breastplate"), a famous hymn attributed to Patrick, may date to a later period. By the end of the 7th century Patrick had become a legendary figure, and the legends have continued to grow since then. There are many legends associated with St Patrick. It is said that he used the three-leafed shamrock to explain the concept of the Trinity; which refers to the combination of Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit. Hence its strong association with his day and name Legend also has that, Saint Patrick had put the curse of God on venomous snakes in Ireland. And he drove all the snakes into the sea where they drowned.

True, these are mostly legends. But, after some 1500 years, these legends have been inseparably combined with the facts. And together they have helped us know much about the Saint and the spirit behind celebration of the day. Patrick's mission in Ireland lasted for over 20 years. He died on March 17, AD 461. That day has been commemorated as St. Patrick's Day ever since. The day's spirit is to celebrate the universal baptization of Ireland. Though originally a Catholic holy day, St. Patrick's Day has evolved into more of a secular holiday. Or, rather, 'be an Irish Day '. And the Irish has borne it as part of their national tradition in everywhere they populated and prospered. The Catholic feast day for this most loved of Irish saints has become a holiday in celebration of the Irish and Irish culture. The leprechaun, a Celtic fairy, has become entrenched as a chief symbol for this holiday, as is the shamrock, an ancient symbol for the triple goddess Brigit. It is fitting that this holiday should fall at the time of the year when the return of spring begins to seem at hand. But why the icons like the green color, the tri-leafed shamrock, the leprechaun, or the pot of gold and Blarney's stone- all came to be associated with the celebration of this Day? And what do they all mean? Click Here to learn

Related Readings:

St. Brigit and St. Patrick and St. Patrick's legends Leprechaun,Shamrock and Blarney's Ston